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Class. 
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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm | H t Q 




COLUMBUS LANDING IN THE NEW WORLD 



ESSENTIALS OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 



BY 

THOMAS BONAVENTURE LAWLER, A.M., LL.D 
(I 

AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF COLUMBUS AND MAGELLAN AND 
"A I'KIMARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES" 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLORS BY 
N. C. WYETH 



" Let us raise a standard lo which 
the wise and the honest can repair ; 
the event is in the hand of God." 



RF.VISED EDITION 



GINN AND COMPANY 

BOSTON . NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO 



COPYRIGHT, 1902, 1918, BY THOMAS BONAVENTURE LAWLER 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



318.9 






tCbe gtbeneeum jgretfg 

GINN AND COMPANY- PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 

DEC 21 I9i8 

©aA508645 



PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION 

This work has been prepared to give as thorough a knowledge 
of the political, industrial, and territorial development of our 
country as the limits of a grammar-school textbook will allow. 
It endeavors to show the part played by all the elements, 
racial and religious, that have made contributions to American 
history. 

The upbuilding of the United States is indeed a wonder- 
ful stor\-. From the days of the Vikings onward the long 
procession of valiant Spanish, English, French, and Dutch 
voyagers, missionaries, and colonizers appears on its pages. 
The Indian tribes are seen in the woods or on the plains, along 
the rivers and on the Great Lakes. The scenes of our great 
historic actions were enacted on a stage made up of mighty 
areas, unrivaled waterways, primeval forests, boundless plains, 
and towering mountain systems. Through all the story we 
can see the slow development of a representative form of 
government, which, checked — now here and now there — by 
royal prerogative, at last burst its bonds and emerged a free 
people. While the path of progress of the Republic has ever 
led onward, it was not without, now and then, a mighty 
struggle, as in the great Civil War, when the nation had to 
decide whether a government constituted as it was would con- 
tinue to exist. The Republic rendered its decision, and then 
and there entered on a career of advancement unequaled in 
the history of mankind. 

In the last decade and a half many new viewpoints have 
been brought to light as the result of intensive study by 
historical scholars. To aid the pupil and teacher in making 



iv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

use of at least a small part of this research, references to 
histories, to the sources, and to historical fiction have been 
given in the present volume. In addition, review questions 
are frequently presented. These questions are designed to 
compel thought and to aid in securing a better grasp of the 
causes and results of historical events. 

The ever-widening share of the United States in world 
affairs has ushered in a broader national and historical view- 
point. The Atlantic and Pacific no longer bound our horizon ; 
we are direct, active participants in affairs to the uttermost 
reaches of the world. This will be a sufficient reason for the 
larger treatment of European affairs. Every effort has been 
made to bring the entire work thoroughly in touch with the 
epoch-making events of to-day. 

T. B. L. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Great Navigators i 

II. The Explorers 26 

III. The Early Missionaries 46 

IV. The Indians 53 

V. Permanent Colonial Settlements 62 

\T. French E.\PL(Mt.A.TiONS 121 

VII. The Wars of the English and the French in America 131 

VIII. Life in the Colonies in 1763 151 

IX. The Period of the Revolution 167 

X. Physical Features of the United St.vtks .... 225 

XI. The Period of Union 229 

XII. The Period of Disunion 353 

XIII. The Period of Reunion 386 

XIV. The Period of Industrial Development .... 404 
XV. The United States as a World Power 440 

APPENDIX 

Declaration of Independence (with Notes) . . . i 

Constitution of the United States (with Notes) . v 

Digest of the Constitution xxi 

Table of Presidents and Vice Presidents .... xxv 

Table of St.a.tes and Territories xxvi 

Leadi.ng Dates in Connection with the History of 

the United States xxvii 

Topical Analysis xxxi 

IXDEX xlvii 








1^ 



-^^^ 



ESSENTIALS OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER I 

" During the Middle Ages the life of Europe and western Asia was still 
grouped about the Mediterranean. ... Of all the changes which mark the 
transition from ancient and mediaeval to modern history, none is so pro- 
found as that which has regrouped human life about the Atlantic as a new 
and grander central sea."' — Bourne, " Spain in America," p. 3 

THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 

1. Early Voyages to America. The Northmen. In ver}- early 
days it is probable that America was visited by many people. 
There are vague reports of visits by Arabians, Chinese, Japanese, 






\li;nALLION OF ST. HREN 



Welsh, French, and Irish. On maps drawn as late as the six- 
teenth century we can see an island, marked St. Brendan's Isle^ 

1 On old maps may be seen an island named Atlantis, which had been 
described by Plato four hundred years before Christ. Other islands which 
were believed to exist in the Atlantic Ocean were named Brazil and Antilla. 
For years English and Portuguese sailors sought these islands in vain. 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



after an Irish monk who was beheved to have settled on an 
island in the middle of the Atlantic. 

The first Europeans to visit North America of whom we 
have any actual historic records were the Northmen, or Norse- 
men. They were so named because they lived in the north of 
Europe, in Denmark, Norway, or Sweden. Some of these dar- 
ing sailors in their dragon- 
shaped boats, without a compass 
and trusting to the stars, cruised 
along the coasts of Europe, 
entered the Mediterranean Sea, 
and even pushed as far east as the 
city of Constantinople ; others 
sailed westward to Iceland, 
where they established prosper- 
ous settlements as early as the 
year 874. Trading was carried 
on between these colonies and 
the continent of Europe. About 
a century later (985) the North- 
men began to build villages 
along the coast of Greenland, 
which in the meantime they 
had discovered. 

2. Leif Ericson discovers Vin- 
land, A.D. 1000. The Norse 
spirit of adventure was not yet satisfied. About the year 1000 
Leif Ericson ^ resolved to go westward in search of a land 
of which he had heard from Norse navigators. With thirty- 
five men he sailed from Greenland to the west and reached 
an unknown land, beautifully and thickly wooded. Cruising 
along the coast, he cast anchor in a favorable bay and, 
landing, called the country Vinland, from the large quantity 
of grapes, or perhaps wild cranberries, which he found there 

^ Leif Ericson (life er'ik son). 




A VIKING CHIEF 
One of the Northmen 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 3 

and from which a kind of wine was made. Ericson made 
no permanent settlement and left on our shores no record of 
his visit. The exact site of his landing has therefore never 
been discovered.^ While these settlements were being made, 
Catholic missionaries had converted the people of Norway to 
Christianity. Among the converts was Lcif Ericson, who had 
come from Greenland to Norway on a brief visit. On return- 
ing home he took priests with him, and Iceland and Green- 
land were soon converted to Christianity.- It is probable 
that two other voyages were made to the shores of Vinland, 
but at length these journeys ceased.'^ The explorations of 
the Northmen in Vinland produced no lasting effect even 
among the Northmen themselves, as no colonies were founded, 
and X'inland was soon forgotten. 

3. Europe in the Fifteenth Century. The latter half of the 
fifteenth century is a period of the greatest importance in the 
world's historv. France, which had been waging war with 
England for one hundred years, was at last at peace with that 

1 Leif Ericson is supposed to have landed in the vicinity of Narragansett 
Bay, but there is nothing to prove that this is true. For a time it was thought 
that the old mill at Newport, Rhode Island, was built by the Northmen. It 
is now known that it is a stone windmill built by Governor Arnold in early 
colonial days, probably about 1675. I" his will Arnold writes about his " stone- 
built windmill." The Arnold family came from Leamington, England. Near 
this place is an old windmill built along the same lines as that of Newport. It 
was doubtless from this stone mill in England that Arnold got the plans for 
his mill here. The pupil should read Longfellow's " Skeleton in Armor." 
Although this poem is entirely incorrect in the facts of history, it gives a good 
idea of the spirit of the Norse voyagers. 

2 Early in the twelfth century Eric Gnupson was appointed Bishop of 
Gardar, a diocese in Greenland. For almost four, hundred years the Church 
was maintained in this country, with a regular succession of bishops ; but 
disasters befell the people. Pestilence swept away many of the colo- 
nists, Norway neglected her colony, and the settlements were attacked re- 
peatedly by Eskimos and finally destroyed by them. The churches fell 
into decay, and at last all traces of Greenland passed from the knowledge 
of Europe. 

8 The stories of these voyages are told in the so-called " sagas," or tales, of 
Iceland. These sagas are partly true and partly fictitious, and it is difficult to 
tell what is truth and what is fiction. 



4 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

country. She was at the beginning of a stronger and nobler 
national life — the opening of an era of remarkable progress. 
Spain had been gradually driving back the Moors,^ who at one 
time held three quarters of the country. At this time only the 
extreme southern part remained in Moorish hands and Spain 
held the first place among European nations. The kings of 
France, Spain, England, and Portugal had during these years 
secured greater authority by reducing the armies of their nobles. 
With their strong royal power 
established, these kings were now 
ready to embark on enterprises be- 
yond the limits of their kingdoms. 
4. The Two Routes to the 
Indies. At this period the trade 
of Europe was largely wath the 
East, and was in the hands of 
two Italian city republics, Genoa 
and Venice. This trade was es- 
pecially valuable, as the East 
supplied Europe with dyestuffs, 
shawls, spices, precious stones, 
ivory, and silks. In exchange the 
East secured from the West 
woolen goods, metals, and min- 
erals. The Genoese, taking the 
so-called northern route, sailed to Constantinople. From this 
great city their vessels sailed northward and crossed the Black 
Sea to meet the caravans that came overland from the East. 
The Venetians controlled the southern route, with Alexandria 
in Egypt as their chief port. This route through the Red Sea 
and the Indian Ocean was, of course, almost entirely by water. 




A VEXETIAN GALLEY 



1 The Moors were Mohammedan Arabs. From Arabia they had overrun 
Asia as far east as India and had also conquered northern Africa. In 711 
they entered Spain, overthrew its kings, and for almost eight hundred years 
ruled a large part of the country. 



THE (IRKAT NAVKIATORS 



A middle route led by way of Antioch, Damascus, and Bagdad 
ihrough the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the 
Persian Gulf. After reaching Genoa or Venice large quantities 
of the Eastern goods were sent northward through tKe passes 
of the Alps to northern Europe. 

5. The Fall of Constantinople. The wealth of this trade was 
so great that the two republics of Genoa and Venice for two 
hundred years waged bitter warfare for the supremacy of the sea. 




ROUTE 
mOtH.E ROUTE 
NORTHERN ROUTE 



ROUTES OK TKAUK liKTWEEX INDIA AND CITIES OK 
SOL'THERX EUROPE 

In 1453 a great disaster occurred in the East. A barbaric 
Tartar tribe, called the Ottoman Turks, that had overrun Asia 
Minor for two liundred years, and for a century had been estab- 
lished in southeastern Europe, appeared before the w'alls of 
Constantinople. They besieged the mighty city with two hun- 
dred thousand men, and it fell in 1453 after a short resist- 
ance. The cross, the emblem of Christianity, on the church 
of St. Sophia was replaced by the crescent, the emblem of 
Mohammedanism. Thus the gateway to the Black Sea was in 
the hands of the barbaric Turks, the route of the Genoese 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



traders was closed, and commerce by the Venetian route 
through Alexandria was made extremely difficult and unprofit- 
able by the levy of excessive transit dues in Egypt. To add 
to the disasters and dangers, Turkish pirates infested the 
Mediterranean Sea, seizing the vessels of the Christians and 
killing the crews or selling them into slavery. 

6. Knowledge of the East. The Franciscans. Men now 
sought anxiously a new route to the Indies and China. While 

the people of western Europe had 
some knowledge of oriental lands, it 
was rather vague, as the trade with the 
East had been carried on by means of 
middlemen. Through the Crusades,^ 
as early as the eleventh century, the 
people of western Europe had become 
acquainted with the lands bordering 
the eastern Mediterranean and with 
the peoples beyond as far as India. 
They had also developed a need for the 
goods of Eastern lands, especially silks, 
spices, and luxuries of all kinds. 

Another source of knowledge was 
the travelers who related the stories 
of their travels in the East. In the 
middle of the thirteenth century Franciscan priests had visited 
the Great Khan, or emperor, of China and had told the people 
of Europe of the great ocean which formed, they declared, 
the eastern boundary of Asia. 

7. Marco Polo. In 1295 Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, 
returned with his father and uncle to his native city after an 




A CRUSADER 



^ The Crusades were eight great religious military expeditions which for 
about two hundred years (1096-1270) were led against the Mohammedan 
Turks to recover the sacred places of the Holy Land. Although, after severe 
hardships and terrible loss of life, they failed finally to drive out the Turk, 
they had a marked influence in giving Europe a knowledge of western Asia 
and its peoples and in developing trade. 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 7 

absence of twenty- four years. He had spent these long years in 
travehng in the East, going overland through Asia to farthest 
China, where he lived for seventeen years at the court of the 
(ireat Khan near the present great city of Peking. He returned 
by water around southern Asia to the Persian Gulf and thence 
overland to his native city. When he and his two companions 
arrived no one knew them after so many years. Their clothes 
were ragged and worn. Presently they drew forth precious 
stones and gold of great value and related the story of their 
wonderful exploits. In a book which appeared later (1299) 
Marco Polo described India and China, and told of what he had 
heard of the island of Cipango, probably Japan, as well as of the 
marvelous riches of the East. This book was destined to have 
a wide influence, as it aroused in the middle of the fifteenth 
centur)^ a great interest in geography when men needed to find 
new commercial routes. 

8. Great Inventions. About this time there were four great in- 
ventions. The first was that of printing with movable l\pc, about 
1454, "the most important discovery," says Hallam,^ "recorded 
in the annals of mankind." Up to this time books had been 
slowly written by hand with the pen.^ Through this invention 
it was possible to print books cheaply and quickly. These 
printed books sent broadcast information about the discov- 
eries of the past and gave a marked stimulus to the study 
of geography and history. 

The development of the compass and astrolabe '"^ were epoch- 
making events. These instruments, simpler forms of which 
had been in use for centuries, enabled men to take long 



1 Ilallam, The Middle Ages, Vol. III. p. 1S3. 

2 In the monasteries was a room called the scriptorium. In this room the 
monks by slow handwork copied the books of ancient learning and preserved 
them to the world. In connection with the monasteries were schools where 
boys were taught. 

3 The astrolabe was used in navigation for taking the altitude of the sun 
and stars above the horizon. Its place was later taken by the quadrant and 
the sextant. 



8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

voyages in safety out of sight of land, as they could now know 
fairly accurately the true position of their vessels at sea. 

Another very important invention was gunpowder, which 
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries changed entirely the 
nature of warfare and finally rendered the castles of the feudal 
nobles useless as fortresses. The foot soldier with his gun was 
now more powerful than the knight on horseback with his lance 
or spear. 

While these great inventions were being developed, Genoa 
and Venice were studying plans to find a new route to the 
Indies and the Spice Islands ^ which would avoid entirely the 
power of the Turks. No one, however, was successful until 
the great discoverer Christopher Columbus announced his 
belief in a ivcstivard route to the Indies.^ 

9. Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus was born 
about 1446 in the city of Genoa, which was at this time the 
center of seafaring life. He was the son of a humble weaver, 
and in the midst of the sailor life around him developed an 
earnest love of the sea. It is said, upon rather doubtful 
authority however, that he attended the University of Pavia 
for two years, where he studied Latin, geography, astronomy, 
mathematics, and drawing. At the age of fourteen he became 
a sailor, voyaging far to the south till he had reached the 
equator and northward even to Iceland. For twenty-three 
years he lived the perilous life of the mariner — at times 
fighting the pirates of the Mediterranean, at times battling 
with the Turks. 

1 " It is hard for us to understand this enthusiasm for spices, for which we 
care much less nowadays. One former use for spices was to preserve food, 
which could not then as now be carried rapidly, while still fresh, from place 
to place ; nor did our conveniences then exist for keeping it by the use of ice. 
Moreover, spice served to make even spoiled food more palatable than it would 
otherwise have been." — Robinson, " Introduction to the History of Western 
Europe," p. 350 

^ " The discovery of the New World was the direct result of European 
interest in the Far East, an incident in the charting of new highways for the 
world's commerce." — Becker, " Beginnings of the American People," p. 2 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 



About 1473 he reached Lisbon in Portugal. Through the 
zeal of Prince Henry the Navigator^ this city was at that time 
the chief center of the spirit of discovery in Europe. The 
sailors e.xcited the interest of the people by the tales of their 
perilous journeys along 
the west coast of Africa ; 
the state spent large sums 
of money in spreading 
geographical knowledge; 
the African slave trade 
offered large profits ; 
and the science of navi- 
gation was studied in 
an earnest endeavor to 
find a new and shorter 
route to the Indies. 
Columbus suggested a 
solution of this problem. 
10. Columbus pro- 
poses to sail West. "The 
world is round, quite 
like a ball," said Colum- 
bus, "and by sailing di- 
rectly west you can reach 
the East Indies and 
Spice Islands." At that > hki^ioi-hkr colimki's 

time people in general 

believed the earth to be fiat, but astronomers and other learned 
men knew and taught that it was round. They had watched 
the vessels sink beneath the horizon ; they had seen the shadow 
of the earth in the eclipse of the moon ; and they showed that 

1 Prince Henry the Navigator was a son of King John I of Portugal. Under 
Henry's direction expeditions were sent southward along the west coast of 
Africa. Henry died in 1460, but his work was carried on by other members 
of the royal family. In the exploration of the coast of Africa, however, the 
Italian sailors had preceded the Portuguese by many years. 




lO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the old Grecian philosophers and astronomers had declared the 
world to be round. Columbus studied the subject deeply and 
read as many books as he could secure. He had often heard 
that strange objects had been washed ashore on the Cape 
Verde Islands and other places by the waves of the Atlantic — 
pieces of carved wood, huge trunks of pine trees, gigantic 
reeds, and the bodies of two copper-colored men.^ Columbus 
declared that two thirds of the world had been already explored, 
that is, from the eastern borders of Asia, by Marco Polo, to 
the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean, by the Portuguese.''^ Only 
three or four thousand miles of ocean would have to be 
crossed, he believed, to reach the Indies. Columbus had 
reckoned the size of the world to be about two thirds as large 
as it really is, an error common to men at that time. 

11. Motives of Columbus. Columbus was deeply religious. 
While he had made earnest studies in the sciences, the leading 
motive of his life was the hope of seeing the Catholic religion 
believed by all the peoples of the world. He desired to spread 
the truths of the Gospel among the heathen nations and to 
plant the Cross in distant lands.^ 

1 While in Lisbon, Columbus had earned a living by making maps and 
charts. He himself says, " God hath given me a genius and hands apt to 
draw his globe and on it the cities, rivers, islands, and ports — all in their 
proper places." In 1474 he wrote, it is believed, to a great Florentine geogra- 
pher, Toscanelli, for a map which Toscanelli had made, showing the route to 
Asia and Japan. The map was sent with a letter of explanation, saying, "' So 
through the unknown parts of the route the stretches of sea to be traversed 
are not great." This map would have been singularly -correct had not the 
continent of America been directly in the way. On this map we can see the 
mythical islands Antilla, Brazil, and St. Brendan's Isle. These would serve, 
it was thought, as stepping-stones to the Indies, and it is fortunate that they 
were believed to exist. 

^ Many believed the legend that monsters lived in the Atlantic and would 
devour anyone venturing far into that ocean. It was also declared that a great 
belt of heat would consume any vessel sailing to the far south. Columbus re- 
jected these beliefs as nonsensical. 

3 " He freely asserted his conviction that he had been chosen by God from 
his earliest years to carry out two great undertakings : the discovery of a 
westward route to the Indies and, as a crusader, to recover the Holy Sepulchre 
from the Turks." — Tarducci, "Columbus" (edited by Brownson), p. 215 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS II 

In 148 1 John II ascended the throne of Portugal and 
Columbus unfolded to him his plans. The king referred them 
to a learned council of his court, but they were rejected. 

In despair Columbus now left Portugal. It is thought he 
visited Genoa and Venice, but both of these republics rejected 
his plans. 

12. He seeks the Aid of Spain. He finally started for Spain 
to seek the aid of Ferdinand and Isabella. In i486 he arrived 
at the royal court in Cordova. At this time Spain was pre- 
paring for the last battles against the Moors, and the prepara- 
tions for the war and the excitement of the times delayed his 
reception by the king and queen. Mnally, through the aid of 
Cardinal Mendoza, he was invited to appear before them and 
to unfold his plans for the new route to Asia. The Spanish 
sovereigns called a council of learned men in the city of 
Salamanca ^ to examine the charts and plans. They rejected 
the scheme as visionary. At length in 1491, five years after 
his arrival, Columbus resolved to leave Spain ^ and seek the 
aid of France. With his little son Diego '^ he started on his 
drearv journey. 

13. Columbus and Queen Isabella. A short distance from 
Palos'* Columbus saw the Franciscan monastery of La Rabida.'^ 
Footsore and hungry he asked for aid and had the good fortune 
to meet the prior, P^ather Juan Perez,^ who was the confessor 
of Queen Isabella. He listened eagerly to the story of Columbus 
and believed so fully in his projects that he wrote to the 
queen at once. A short time later he went to the court and 

1 It is said this council met at the famous University of Salamanca. There 
is, however, no record of such a meeting in the archives of the university. 

2 So well known but so little understood was Columbus that the boys ran 
after him in the streets and called him a madman. 

8 Diego (dee ay'go). 

* Palos (pah'loce). 

'^ La Rabida (lah rah'bee dah). The full name of the monaster)^ was Santa 
Maria de la Rabida, or St. Mary of the Frontier, as it was less than thirty miles 
from the boundary of Portugal. 

" Juan Perez (whan pay'rayth). 



12 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

persuaded the queen to accept the proposal of Columbus/ who 
was now recalled.^ At last his plans were accepted and he 
was ready to prepare for his great voyage. 

14. Beginning of the Great Voyage. Many difficulties still 
beset the daring navigator. Sailors were afraid to cross un- 
known seas, a distance of two thousand five hundred miles,^ 
as Columbus believed ; inhabited, they had been informed, by 
fearful monsters. After great efforts he gathered ninety men 
for his three small vessels, which he called the Santa Maria,^ 
the Pinta, and the Nifia. On the third of August, 1492, all 
was ready for the great journey. At sunrise, while the whole 
population crowded the shore, Columbus received the final 
blessing of his devoted friend, the prior of La Rabida, hoisted 
sail, and with his three little vessels went forth on the most 
momentous journey of history. 

1 In return for the service he would render, Columbus was to be made 
viceroy and governor-general of any lands he might discover, and was to 
receive one tenth of the profits of any expedition as well as of the pearls, 
gold, and other valuables found. Columbus vowed to devote his fortune to 
the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher from the Turks. No mention is made in 
the contract of any route to the Indies. 

2 In his efforts Columbus was especially aided by Cardinal Mendoza, Bishop 
Deza, the Duke of Medinaceli, and Talavera, afterward- Archbishop of Granada. 

Washington Irving, in his " Life of Columbus," says that Isabella "was one 
of the purest spirits that ever ruled over the destinies of a nation. . . . Her fair 
name will ever shine with celestial radiance in the dawning of '" the history of 
America. The pupil might well study with care the wonderful picture by 
Brozik of Columbus before Isabella. The original is in the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art in New York City. A copy can be obtained in the Perry 
Pictures or similar school aids. 

^ It is indeed fortunate that Columbus did not know how far av.fay India 
really was. Had he known it was ten thousand miles distant from Spain, it 
would probably have been impossible to secure ships and men even if he 
himself would have had the courage to face such a journey. 

* The Santa Maria (mah ree'ah), the largest vessel, was single-decked and 
was the flagship of Columbus. Neither the Pinta (peen'tah) nor the Alha 
(neen'yah) was decked amidships. The cost of the expedition was about 
eighty thousand dollars in the money of to-day. Columbus paid about one 
eighth of the cost and the crown of Castile the remainder from money loaned 
by the Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) through its treasurers, Santangel 
and Pinelo. 



TIIK GREAT NAVIGATORS 



13 



15. Perils of the Journey. The first point reached was the 
Canary Islands, where they were delayed three weeks for re- 
pairs. On the sixth of September they sailed directly west- 
ward, and the sailors were terrified as the land disappeared 
behind them, leaving only the unknown waste of waters around 
them on every side. New terrors constantly arose. They feared 
they might meet the monsters said to inhabit these regions ; 
they believed if the world were round they could not sail up 
its sides again. C'oluml^us had to cheer their spirits, overcome 
their fears, and rule with a firm hand the crews, who might 




% 



■■' ^--. 



Columbus sailecl Aug. 



Left Canaiii l.tlaml 

Sri.t.r.ll, _..^^ 




.MAP (>!■ ((M.r-MlUSS KorXI-. OX HIS FIRST VOYAGE 

Otherwise have become mutinous.^ Day after day they sailed 
westward, borne onward by the strong trade winds and the 
ocean currents. This constant easterly trade wind caused grave 
fears in the minds of the sailors, as they believed they could not 



1 On October 7 Pinzon, noticing a flock of birds flying to the southwest, 
beUeved these birds were headed toward land and urged Columbus to change" 
his course in that direction. As the Portuguese had made many discoveries 
by following the flight of birds, Columbus finally consented. It is probable, 
had he not made this change, he would have drifted with the Gulf Stream 
northward and sighted the stormy coasts of the Carolinas instead of the 
Bahamas. By making this change in his course he had only five hundred 
miles to travel before land was sighted ; had he continued on a straight course, 
at least seven hundred miles would have had to be covered and dire results 
might have arisen from mutiny and other causes. Another important result 
would have been that Spanish colonization would have been established on 
our Atlantic seaboard in a temperate climate instead of in the tropical West 
Indies and Central .\merica. 



14 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

return against it. They also noticed that the compass changed 
its direction to the west of the true north, which was to them 
another bad omen. Fortunately after about four weeks they saw 
signs indicating that land must be near, and on the evening of 
October ii, 1492, Columbus saw a moving light in the dis- 
tance. On the following morning the welcome cry, " Land ! " 
arose. A new world had been discovered. 

16. The Landing of Columbus, October 12, 1492. Holding 
in his hand the banner of Spain, Columbus landed on the shore 
and took possession in the name of the Spanish sovereigns, 
Ferdinand and Isabella. He called the land San Salvador 




VESSELS OF COLUMBUS CROSSLNG THE OCEAN 

(Holy Redeemer).! It was one of the Bahamas, perhaps Wat- 
ling Island. The natives were unlike any people he had ever 
seen. Believing he had reached the East Indies, he called 
the natives Indians. He now sailed southwestward and quickly 
reached the large island of Cuba. Changing his course to the 
eastward, he reached the island of Haiti, which he named 
Espanola, or Hispaniola. Here his best vessel, the Santa Maria, 
was wrecked. Desiring to return to Spain, he built here a 
fort, and, leaving a small colony of about forty men, sailed 
on his homeward journey. 

1 " To the first [island] I discovered, I gave the name of San Salvador, in 
commemoration of His Divine Majesty, who has wonderfully granted all this." 
— Letter of Columbus to Santangel 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 1 5 

17. Return of Columbus. After a stormy voyage he reached 
the coast of Europe, where he was obhged on account of severe 
storms to seek shelter in the harbor of Lisbon (March 4). The 
king of Portugal received him with marked honor and fur- 
nished him with cverytliing lie needed to finish liis journey. 
Columbus arrived at Palos on March 15, 1493. The fame of 
his wonderful discoveries spread far and wide, aided by the 
newly discovered printing press. He was summoned to Barce- 
lona to the presence of the king and queen and was received 
in triumpli. lie presented to them some of the wonders of 
the New World — gold, birds, beasts, plants, and a few Indians 
whom he had brought back with him. A solemn Mass and 
Te Deum were sung in thanksgiving for his great achieve- 
ments, and the king and queen fell on their knees in homage 
to God for the benefits granted to their kingdom. On Columbus 
were showered most signal honors. He was appointed admiral 
and the king's viceroy in the New \\'orld. 

18. Later Voyages of Columbus. In September, 1493, only 
six months after his return, he set out once more across 
the Western seas. This expedition w^as made up of seventeen 
ships. They were loaded with horses, cows, vines, tools, fruit 
trees, and seeds for use in the New World. Those who had 
scoffed at his first voyage now sought to accompany him on his 
second journey. He founded a colony on the present island 
of Haiti and discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico, and the islands 
of the Caribbean Sea.^ P'ive years later (1498) he made a third 
vovage, discovering the island of Trinidad, the mainland of South 
America, and the mouth of the Orinoco River. His efforts 
to find a way into the Indian Ocean had been unsuccessful, 

1 After the settlements in the islands had been made, the unfortunate 
natives, by a system of slavery, were kept by the Spaniards in the mines at 
hard labor until they perished by thousands. Bartolome de las Casas, the 
noble Dominican, with all his power tried to better the condition of the 
natives. In this noble work he was assisted by Father Antonio Montesino, 
another Dominican. The names of Las Casas and Montesino will ever be 
remembered by those whose hearts beat for a suffering humanity. 



i6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The popular discontent at the failure to find gold increased 
daily, and the cost of the voyages was so great that the court 
lost interest in him.^ 

He made one more attempt. In 1502 he sailed westward, 
visiting Honduras and the Isthmus of Panama. He died un- 
noticed in Valladolid on May 20, 1506. To the hour of his 
death he believed he had reached Asia by the best and most 
direct route. He never knew he had given to mankind a 
new world, 

19. John Cabot's Voyage. In the meantime the discoveries 
of Columbus stirred other adventurous spirits. There resided 
in England an Italian, John Cabot by name, who was commis- 
sioned by Henry VII, king of England, to seek a northern 
route to the Spice Islands for the spice trade. Cabot sailed 
from Bristol in May, 1497, with a single vessel and dis- 
covered the continent of America, probably on the coast of 
Labrador, June 24. Believing he had discovered Asia, he 
landed and, erecting a large cross bearing aloft the flag of 
England, claimed the entire country in behalf of the English 
king. A year later, in April, 1498, with his son Sebastian 
Cabot, he returned and explored the coast as far south, perhaps, 
as Cape Hatteras. These voyages are most important, as 
they gave England a claim to the Atlantic seaboard and the 
right to colonize North America. One hundred years were 
allowed to pass, however, before a permanent settlement was 
made, as the English at this time were more • interested in 
the affairs of Europe. 

20. Division of the World. After the return of Columbus 
from his great voyage Spain and Portugal began to disagree 

1 While Columbus was trying to establish orderly government in his colony 
in Santo Domingo, a new governor arrived from Spain, who arrested him on 
false charges and sent him home in chains. The captain of the ship desired to 
remove the irons ; but Columbus refused, and wore them till he reached the 
port. Queen Isabella cordially received the old admiral and with tears in her 
eyes bestowed honors upon him. Full justice was not done him, however, as 
he never again obtained in full the powers granted in his contract. 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 



17 



as to the ownership of lands yet to be discovered. As both of 
these countries professed the CathoHc faith, the matter was 
referred to His HoHness Pope Alex- 
ander \'I by the sovereigns of the 
two nations. To settle the conflict- 
ing claims the Pope ^ finally divided 
the world by an imaginary line drawn 
very nearly midway through the 
Atlantic one hundred leagues west 
of the Azores and the Cape Verde 
Islands. He granted to Portugal 
all pagan lands discovered by the 
Portuguese east of this line and to 
Spain all pagan lands ^ west of it. 
The king of Portugal was not satis- 
fied with this line, and in 1494^ it was moved to a distance 
of three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde 
Islands. This change later gave Brazil to Portugal. 




MAP SHOWING THE DIVISION 

OF THE WORLD MADE IN 

1494 



1 " As between the Christian nations, the Sovereign Pontiff was the su- 
preme arbiter of conflicting claims ; hence the famous bull issued by Pope 
Alexander \'l in 1493-" — Wheaion, "Elements of International Law," 
Vol. II, chap, iv 

At this time practically the entire Christian world was in communion with 
the See of Rome, and all the early great discoverers — Columbus, Cabot, 
Vespucius, Da Gama, Magellan, Cabral, and Balboa — were Catholics. 

- Franciscan missionaries came with Columbus to the New World. From 
time to time their numbers were increased, until they had preached the Gospel 
from Florida to the Pacific and from the Colorado to Patagonia. 

3 This was the so-called treaty of Tordesillas. As a matter of fact neither 
Spain nor Portugal was ever satisfied with this demarcation line. Twenty- 
seven years later, when Magellan's expedition reached the Philippines and the 
Moluccas, the question became acute as to whether, if the demarcation line 
were continued through the poles around the earth for the full perimeter of 
the circle, these lands would belong to Portugal or Spain. In 15^9 the king 
of Portugal, to clear his title to the Moluccas, paid Charles V of Spain three 
hundred and fifty thousand ducats (equal to about eight hundred and twenty- 
five thousand dollars) for any rights Spain might claim in the Moluccas. Spain 
was allowed to keep the Philippines, as spices did not grow there. Even after 
this settlement there was constant friction until the boundaries of the Philip- 
pines in the East and Brazil in the West were amicably adjusted in 1779. 



1 8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

21. Voyage of Vasco da Gama to India. Cabral's Journey. 

Meantime the Portuguese had not been idle. Bartholomew 
Diaz^ in i486 reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497, 
five years after the discovery of America, the Portuguese 
found their long-coveted route around Africa, when Vasco 
da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached India 
(1498) after a voyage of ten months. The following year he 
returned in triumph with his vessels laden with spices, silks, 
bronzes, ivory, and precious stones. Da Gama had found the 
sea route which Columbus had sought in vain.^ This discovery 
proved that Africa was a continent. It turned the attention of 
European navigators to the new route to the Indies, and for 
some time no further voyages were made to North America. 

Within a few months, however, in 1500, a Portuguese navi- 
gator, Cabral,^ sailed with a fleet of thirteen ships for India. 
He put out boldly to sea and drifted so far from the African 
coast that, to his amazement, he saw land to the west one 
April morning in the year 1500. It was that part of the 
coast of South America now called Brazil. If it were east of 
the Line of Demarcation, it belonged to Portugal. He soon 
discovered that it was east, and sent a vessel back to Lisbon 
with the -news of his good fortune.'^ 

22. Americus Vespucius. The king of Portugal acted 
promptly, fitting out a fleet of three ships in May, 1501. 
With the expedition sailed a Florentine merchant and traveler, 
Americus Vespucius.^ The fleet reached South America at 
Cape St. Roque, in Brazil, and skirted the coast as far south 
as the La Plata River. It later turned southeastward to keep 

1 Diaz (dee'ahth). 

^ In his epic poem called " The Lusiad " Camoens sings the glory of Da 
Gama and other Portuguese explorers and colonizers. 

3 Cabral (cahbrahl'). 

* Cabral named the country Santa Cruz, or Holy Cross. It was later named 
Brazil from the dyewood found there. 

^ Americus Vespucius (a mer'i cus ves pu'cius) is a Latinized form of the 
navigator's name, the Italian form being Amerigo Vespucci (ah may ree'go 
ves poot'chee). 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 19 

east of the Line of Demarcation, and sailed until the Antarctic 
ice fields blocked its way, when it returned to Lisbon. 

23. The Name of America. Vespucius made another voyage 
to the southern continent, and in 1 504 published an account 
of what he had seen in the New World. His voyages were 
of great importance. They proved the existence of a new 
continent, secured Brazil for the Portuguese crown, and re- 
sulted in giving the name America to the Western Hemisphere. 
A copy of a letter which he had written on the New World 
fell into the hands of a German, Martin Waldseemuller,^ a 
teacher of geography in a little college at St. Die,^ in eastern 
France. In 1507 the letter of Vespucius was printed by the 
college press as an appendix to a new edition of a geography. 
The geography contained the suggestion that the newly found 
land should be named America in honor of Americus Vespucius, 
as Waldseemiiller supposed Vespucius had discovered it.^ The 
name was placed on the maps of that time ; at first it was given 
only to Brazil, later to South America, and still later to the 
whole Western Hemisphere.'* Thus Columbus was deprived of 
the great honor of having his name given to the new world he 
had discovered. 

24. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean, 1513. In the year 1513 
Balboa, a Spanish planter and adventurer, set forth to repair 
his broken fortunes by seeking the wealth of the New World. 
While exploring the Isthmus of Panama, he was told by an 
Indian chief of a great sea to the west beyond the mountains 
and of lands whose shores were filled with gold and silver. 
Balboa thereupon pushed eagerly onward and, gaining the crest 



1 Waldseemiiller (valt'zay muhl ler). 

- St. Die (san decay'). 

3 Waldseemiiller dropped the nante "America" from his globe in 151J, 
when he learned the real facts, and called South America by the name " Terra 
Incognita" (Unknown Land). 

* Mercator, the Flemish geographer, was the first to apply the name to the 
entire continent of America. The first geography of America was issued by 
Enciso at Saragossa, Spain, in 1519. 



20 ' ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

of the heavily wooded ridge, saw before him the Pacific, the 
greatest of the oceans. "" Falling on his knees," says Helps, 
" he gave thanks to God " for the great discovery. On reaching 
the shore he waded into the sea and claimed possession of 
this vast body of water, together with all the bordering lands, 
for the crown of Spain. As the sea was south of the Isthmus 
of Panama, where he stood, he called it the South Sea. Balboa 
little dreamed that the great ocean he was looking upon stretched 
ten thousand miles westward to the shores of Asia. 

25. The Voyage of Magellan, 1519. Six years later a na- 
tive of Portugal, Ferdinand Magellan, having had some differ- 
ences with his king, offered his services to the king of Spain. 
He declared he could find a shorter route to the rich Spice 
Islands than was known to the world. A fleet of five ships 
was fitted out and sailed westward. Believing that there existed 
south of the La Plata River a passage which would lead to the 
South Sea, Magellan skirted the coast of South America. 
Thirteen months after leaving Spain he discovered and entered 
the strait that has since borne his name. He soon reached 
the great waste of waters named by Balboa the South Sea ; 
he named it the Pacific because it was so calm. Sailing across 
this broad ocean, after incredible hardships, he discovered 
(March 16, 1521) the islands to which later the name Philip- 
pines was given in honor of Philip II of Spain. In an 
encounter with the natives of the Philippines, Magellan soon 
lost his life. 

26. Results of Magellan's Voyage. The journey was con- 
tinued under one of Magellan's captains, Sebastian del Cano.^ 
He rounded the Cape of Good Hope in the only vessel that 
remained out of the five and reached Spain in 1522, bearing 
with him Magellan's written report of the expedition as far as 
the Philippines and also a map of the route. This was the 
first voyage around the world. It proved beyond question five 
great facts : (i) that the world was round; (2) that, contrary to 

1 Sebastian del Cano (say bahs tee ahn' del cah'no). 



^W"''> 




" Cf- '! '- "^- 'All; i " * ^X^J:^ 





22 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

general belief, the area of the water far exceeded that of the 
land of the globe ; (3) that South America was a continent ; ^ 
(4) that a great ocean lay between America and Asia; (5) that 
Columbus had discovered not Asia, but a new world. 



In A. D. 1000 Leif Ericson, with a party of Northmen, visited the 
coast of New England. No permanent settlements were made and 
the Norse voyages were soon forgotten. 

The Portuguese under Prince Henry the Navigator made many 
voyages down the west coast of Africa. Under the lead of Bar- 
tholomew Diaz they reached the Cape of Good Hope in i486. 
Vasco da Gama arrived in India in 1498. This voyage determined 
the first all-water route to the East. 

In 1492 Christopher Columbus, an Italian, sailing under the flag 
of Spain, in trying to find a westward route to the Indies, discovered 
America. He made the following discoveries on his four voyages : 

First voyage, 1492 : the Bahamas, Cuba, and Haiti (Espanola). 

Second voyage, 1493: the islands of the Caribbean Sea, Porto 
Rico, and Jamaica. 

Third voyage, 1498 : Trinidad, mainland of South America, mouth 
of the Orinoco River. 

Fourth voyage, 1502 : coast of Central America, Isthmus of 
Panama. 

In 1497 John Cabot, an Italian, sailing under the patronage of 
England, discovered the mainland of North America. This discovery 
gave Great Britain a title to this country. 

In 1504 Americus Vespucius, an Italian, after a number of voy- 
ages to the New World, wrote a description of what he had seen. 
His letters led to his name being given to the Western Hemisphere. 

In 1 5 13 Balboa, a Spaniard, explored the Isthmus of Panama 
and discovered the Pacific Ocean. 

In 15 19 Magellan began his voyage under the flag of Spain. 
He found the strait, named for him, sailed around the southern part 
of South America, crossed the Pacific Ocean, and discovered the 

1 In 1728 Bering, a Danish navigator, discovered the strait that bears his 
name and for the first time proved that America was really detached from Asia. 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 23 

Philippine Islands. One of his vessels returned around the world by 
way of the Cape of Good Hope. This voyage proved that the world 
was a globe and that America was a continent.^ 

Dates to be remettibered : 

1 000 (a. d.). The Northmen reach America. 
1492. Discovery of America by Columbus. 
1497. John Cabot discovers North America. 
1 5 19. Beginning of Magellan's voyage. 

Impoiiant dates for reference : 

1453. Turks capture Constantinople. 

1454. Probable date of invention of printing. 
1494. Line of Demarcation. 

1507. America receives its name. 

Persons to know about : 

Leif Ericson, Marco Polo, Columbus, John Cabot, Vasco da Gama, 
Americus Vcspucius, Balboa, Magellan. 

Map 7Vork : 

Look up on a map Norway, Sweden. Denmark, Iceland, (ireenland, 
Labrador, Genoa, Venice, Constantinople, Lisbon, Cape of Good 
Hope, Isthmus of Panama, Strait of Magellan, the Philippine Islands. 

Trace on a map the first voyage of Columbus. 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Give an account of Europeans who are said to have visited the 
Western continent several centuries before Columbus. 

2. Before the discovery of America what was the general belief in 
regard to {a) the shape of the earth ? (b) the size of the earth ? 

Show how one of these beliefs was a hindrance to Columbus. 

1 No American should ever forget the debt of gratitude \vc owe to Spain 
for her early efforts in discovering and civilizing America. " The Spanish . . . 
built the first cities, opened the first churches, schools and universities ; 
brought the first printing presses, made the first books, wrote the first diction- 
aries, histories and geographies. ... By 1575, nearly a century before there 
was a printing press in English America, many books in twelve different 
Indian languages had been printed in the City of Mexico . . . and three 
Spanish universities in America were nearly rounding out their century when 
Harvard was founded." — C. F. LuM.Mis, "The Spanish Pioneers," p. 23 



24 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

3. Explain why the invention of the mariner's compass aided the 
discovery and exploration of the New World. 

4. Describe two trade routes between Europe and Asia in the fifteenth 
century and show why other routes were sought. 

5. Give an account of the early life of Columbus. State how he 
obtained his knowledge of the sea and how he came to believe in a shorter 
route to India. 

6. Describe the first voyage of Columbus to America, mentioning 
(a) one motive that prompted him to attempt the journey ; (l?) one difficulty 
that he encountered in securing aid; {c) the place where he landed in 
America ; (d) the people that he found. 

7. Name the principal lands that Columbus discovered on each of his 
four voyages. 

8. Mention three navigators who made explorations in the New World 
soon after its discovery by Columbus, and name the particular territory 
explored by each. 

9. What explorer laid the foundation for England's colonial empire ? 
10. Give an account of the first voyage around the globe. State (a) what 

it proved in regard to America; (d) the direction in which it turned the 
attention of explorers. 

READINGS 

Histories. Atkinson, A. M., Introduction to American History. 
Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vol. I. Bourne, E. G., 
Spain in America. Essays in Historical Criticism. Channing, Edward, 
History of the United States, Vol. I. Cheyney, E. P., Eiiropean Back- 
ground of American History. Fiske, John, The Discovery of America, 
Vol. I. Guillemard, F. H. H., Magellan. Helps, A., Spanish Conquest 
of America. Irving, Washington, Life of Columbus.- Lawler, T. B., 
The Story of Columbus and Magellan. Lummis, C. F., The Spanish 
Pioneers. McCarthy, C. H., Columbtts and his Predecessors. McMurrv. 
C. A., Pioneers on Sea and Land. Polo, Marco, Travels (Everyman's 
Library). Prescott, W. H., Ferdinand and Isabella. Reeves, A. M., The 
Finding of Win eland the Good. Thatcher, J. B., Christopher Columbus. 

Sources. American History Leaflets, No. 3 {The Norse Sagas). Hart, 
American History told by Conteinporaries, Vol. I, p. 28 (Norse Voyages). 
Hart, Source Readers, No. i, p. 10 (Balboa's Discovery of the Pacific 
Ocean); No. i, p. 12 (Pizarro's Conquest of Peru). MuzZEY, D. S., Read- 
ings in American History, p. 3 (Geography before Columbus); p. 6 (The 



THE GREAT NAVIGATORS 25 

"Capitulation" of Columbus); p. 7 (Letter of Columbus to Santangel); 
p. II (Magellan's Voyage). Old South Leaflets, No. 32 {Marco Polo's 
Description of Japan and Java) ; No. 33 {Letter of Columbus on his 
Voyage)-, No. 35 {Corte's's Account of the City of Mexico). Olson and 
BoUKNic, T/ie Northmen, Columbus and Cabot. 

Fiction. Arnold, Matthew, St. Brandan. Irving, W., The En- 
chanted Island {^ story of St. Brendan's Isle). Liljencrantz, O. A., The 
Thrall of Leif the Lucky (a tale of Viking days). Longfellow, The Skele- 
ton in Armor. Miller, Joaquin, Columbus (an excellent poem on the 
great discoverer). Wallace, Lew, The Fair God (a story of the Aztecs). 



CHAPTER II 

" The achievements of the Conquistadores have scarcely a parallel in the 
annals of conquest." — Becker, " Beginnings of the American People," 
P- 31 

THE EXPLORERS 

I. Spanish Explorations 

27. Europe and the New World. At the beginning of the 
sixteenth century Spain, Portugal, England, France, and Hol- 
land were the leading nations of Europe, and it was of course 
probable that they would all soon seek a share of the vast ter- 
ritory of the New World. Under the law of nations it was 
necessary, however, to colonize lands as well as discover them, 
if a lasting title was to be obtained. Because of the discovery 
of Columbus, Spain at this time led in the work of exploration, 
and the Spaniards, to secure the territory of the New World, 
began a series of expeditions to the newly discovered country. 

28. Ponce de Leon, 1513. The first Spanish expedition into 
North America was led by Ponce de Leon,^ a Spanish noble- 
man who had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage 
and had later been governor of the island of Porto Rico. Hear- 
ing from the Indians of a country to the north of the Bahamas 
which possessed large quantities of gold, he formed plans to ex- 
plore and colonize it. The Indians also told him, it is said, of 
a spring or fountain which would restore youth to the aged.^ 
He sailed from Porto Rico in March, 15 13, and reached on 

1 Ponce de Leon (pon'thay day lay ohn'). 

'^ While this is the general opinion, it is interesting to note that there is no 
mention whatever of this spring in the charter granted to Ponce de Leon for 
this enterprise by the king of Spain. 

26 



THE EXPLORERS 27 

roaster Sunday the southeast coast of North America, near the 
present site of the city of St. Augustine. He called the land 
Florida, ft-om Pascua Florida,^ the Spanish name for F^aster. 
After cruising around the peninsula he returned to Porto Rico. 
lught years later (1521) he sailed to make a permanent set- 
tlement, taking with him missionaries. The expedition was 
attacked by the Indians. Ponce de Leon himself was mortally 
wounded and was brought to Cuba, where he soon died.^ This 
was the first attempt to found a colony within the present 
limits of the United States, and it ended in disaster. 

29. The Conquest of Mexico, 1519. Tlie Spanish voyagers 
had heard stories from time to time of an Indian confederacy, 
the Aztecs,^ in Mexico, and an expedition under Hernando 
Cortes ■* set out from Cuba to conquer their country. Landing 
on the site of the present city of Vera Cruz in the spring of 
1 5 19, with only four hundred and fifty men, Cortes started on his 
march of more than two hundred miles through an unknown 
country filled with hostile foes.^ The Aztecs had won the 
undying hate of neighboring tribes because of their cruelty, a 
fact that saved Cortes and his little band. He soon made an alli- 
ance with the enemies of the Aztecs, and after two years of 
desperate fighting, in which the Spaniards suffered many 

1 Pascua Florida (pahs'quah flo ree'dah). In Spanish, Florida is accented 
Flori'da. For years Florida was the name given by the Spaniards to all the 
country claimed by them north of the Gulf of Mexico. 

- He was later buried in San Juan, Porto Rico. In 191 1 his remains were 
removed to the San Juan Cathedral, where they now rest. 

'^ The Aztec Confederacy consisted of three tribes. The Aztecs had no 
domestic animals except the dog, and did not know the use of iron. With 
revolting cruelty they offered human sacrifices of prisoners whom they had 
captured, and hence they were feared and hated outside their own territory. 
The descriptions so often given of the " empire of the Montezumas " are 
misleading, as no such empire existed. 

* Hernando Cortes (air nahn'doh cortace'). 

^ To prevent a rebellion among his troops, he sank all his ships. The only 
hope of safety for the men now lay in conquering the country. Cortes was 
helped by the tradition among the .Vztecs that a white god would some day 
come out of the west. When the Spanish ships with their white sails 
appeared the natives believed the long promised deity had arrived. 



28 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



reverses, the power of the Aztecs was broken and Spain 
took possession of the country. Here was estabhshed the 
first Spanish colony on the mainland of North America.^ 

30. De Ayllon's Expedition, 1526. While the voyage of 
Magellan had shown a westward water route around the southern 
end of South America, it was too long and dangerous a journey 
for ships to take, A search was therefore made for a water- 
way through the continent in higher 
latitudes. De Ayllon, a Spanish judge 
in Santo Domingo, determined to 
seek this strait and also plant a colony 
on the Atlantic coast. Sailing north- 
ward, in June, 1 526, with three vessels, 
containing six hundred colonists,^ he 
reached the James River. He called 
his colony San Miguel^ (St. Michael). 
The terrible winter that followed killed 
many of the colonists ; others were 
tomahawked by the Indians ; mutinies 
arose on every hand ; and De Ayllon 
himself died in October, 1526. In the 
following spring the survivors, one 

hundred and fifty in number, embarked for Santo Domingo. 
This was the only attempt of the Spaniards to found a settle- 
ment north of St. Augustine. 

31. De Narvaez's Expedition, 1528. In 1528 Panfilo de 
Narvaez,^ hoping to rival the brilliant exploits of Cortes, set 




CHARLES I, KING OF SPAIN 



(Known also as Emperor 
Charles V) 



1 In 1532 the Spaniards under Pizarro conquered Peru with its vast treas- 
ures of gold and silver. In Lima was founded in 1551 the University of San 
Marcos, the oldest existing university in the New World. 

- The king of Spain, Charles I, ordered De Ayllon (day ah eel yohn') to 
carry missionaries with him at the expense of the crown. The king wrote : 
" Our principal interest in the discovery of new lands is that the inhabitants 
and natives thereof, who are without the light of the knowledge of faith, may 
be brought to understand the truths of our holy Catholic faith." 

3 San Miguel (sahn mee gale'). 

* Panfilo de Narvaez (pahn'fee lo day nahr vah'ayth). 



THE EXPLORERS 



29 



out to conquer the land to the north of the Gulf of Mexico. 
Indians had been seen at Mobile Bay wearing ornaments of 
gold, which had come, they said, from a country to the north. 
With four ships and four hundred men Narvaez sailed from 
Cuba and soon reached Tampa Bay. Leaving the ships for a 
short exploration he marched inland ; but disasters quickly 
overtook him. Ilis treatment of the Indians was so cruel that 
they attacked him at every point. Narvaez tried in vain to 
find the ships 
again and wan- 
dered hither and 
thither along the 
coast. Some of 
the expedition at 
last built boats 
and rowed along 
the shore to one 
of the mouths of 
the Mississippi 
where \ar\aez was 
drowned ; the ex- 
pedition was scat- 
tered, and four 
survivors, one of 

them an officer named Cabeza de Vaca,i fell into the hands 
of the Indians. They wandered from tribe to tribe until, 
after nine years and a journey of two thousand miles, they 
reached the western coast of Mexico. Cabeza de Vaca told 
wonderful stories of the immense herds of buffaloes he had 
seen and of the fabulously wealthy cities in the interior, 

32. Coronado's Expedition, 1540. The Spanish viceroy of 
Mexico, Mendoza, hearing the wonderful tales told by Vaca 
and his companions, determined to find these rich cities, and 
sent a Franciscan monk. Father Mark, a native of Nice, to 

' Cabeza de Vaca (cah bay'thah day vah'cah). 




SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 



30 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



search for them. He penetrated probably as far north as the 
Zuni pueblo of New Mexico, which he saw from a distance. 
His little force was attacked, and he returned to Mendoza 
with an account of his journey. Believing they had found the 
famous "seven cities of Cibola,"^ Coronado was dispatched 
with one thousand one hundred men to conquer them and 
bear away their treasures. He attacked and ransacked the- 
first of these cities, but nothing valuable was found. The 




DE SOTO S EXPEDITION IN THE EAST, AND CORGNADO S IN THE WEST 



rude houses were made of sunburnt clay, and the poverty of 
the natives showed that gold was an unknown article. He 
now roamed over those vast deserts and plains covered with 
buffaloes.^ One of his parties discovered the canyon of the 

1 Cibola (thee'boh lah). It was a tradition that on tiie conquest of the 
Spanish peninsula by the Moors, in the eighth century, a Bishop had fled 
from Lisbon with his followers across the sea and founded seven rich cities. 
The Spaniards believed they had now found these cities. 

■■^ " In nine days' march I reached some plains so vast that I did not find 
their limit anywhere that I went, although I traveled more than three hundred 
leagues through them. And I found such a quantity of cows [buffaloes] that 
it is impossible to number them." — Letter af Coronado 



THE EXPLORERS 



31 



Colorado River. Coronado penetrated as far north as the 
Platte River, where he erected a cross bearing the inscription, 
" Thus far came the General Francisco Vasquez de Coro- 
nado."^ He returned to Mexico in 1542, bitterly disappointed 
at his failurc- 

33. De Soto's Expedition, 1539. In the meantime another 
Spaniard, Hernando de Soto,-^ who had been appointed gov- 
ernor of Cuba, decided to try his fortunes in the search for 







UE SOTO REACHES THE MISSlSSH'l'I 

the gold country. In May, 1539, he landed at Tampa Bay 
with about five hundred and seventy men and two hundred 
horses. He advanced slowly northward through the swamps 
and jungles, suffering bitter hardships. The journey led him 

' Francisco \'asquez de Coronado (frahn thees'coh vahs'kayth day 
CO ro nah'doh). 

- Forty years later (1582) the Spanish Franciscans founded Santa Fe. the 
second oldest city in the United States. Some historians give the date of 
this foundation as 1605. 

8 Hernando de Soto (air nahn'doh day soh'toh). 



32 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

among the warlike Indian tribes, — the Seminole, Choctaw, 
Creek, and Chickasaw. In the course of a year, after travers- 
ing the states of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, they 
reached in 1541 the Mississippi River. ^ Crossing this river, 
they marched westward through the present state of Arkansas. 
Finding nothing of value, they turned southeastward, and after 
great suffering again came in the present state of Louisiana 
upon the Mississippi at the point where the Red River 
enters it. Here De Soto died, and to conceal his death from 
the Indians, who feared him, he was buried in the waters of 
the great river. Nearly half of the expedition had died of fever 
and of wounds inflicted by the Indians. The survivors built 
rude boats and sailed down the Mississippi to the Gulf of 
Mexico, where they made their way to the Spanish settle- 
ments in Mexico. Another attempt at colonization had failed, 
and half a century after Columbus's discovery of America not 
a permanent Spanish settlement existed north of the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

II. French Explorations 

34. Verrazano's Voyage. For some time after the division 
of the world between Spain and Portugal, France did nothing 
of importance in the way of exploration. In 1523 Francis I, 
king of France, desiring to obtain a share of the territory in 
the New World and to find a passage to the rich countries 
of the East, sent Verrazano,'^ a native of Florence but now 
in the French service, on a voyage of discovery. Sighting 
land near Cape Hatteras in 1524, he cruised along the Atlantic 
coast northward. He soon entered the present harbor of New 
York, which he compared to a beautiful lake. After cruising 

1 The first European to see the Mississippi River was Alvarez de Pineda 
(ahl vah'rayth day pee nay'dah), who discovered its mouth in 1519 and spent 
six weeks cruising upon it. He named it Rio de Espiritu Santo (River of the 
Holy Ghost). Some authorities now claim, however, that it was Mobile Bay 
that Pineda entered. 

^ Verrazano (vai rah tsah'noh). 



THE EXPLORERS 33 

along the shores of what is now Long Island, he discovered 
and entered Narragansett Bay and sailed along the coasts of 
Massachusetts and Maine — probably the first European to 
trace the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Chesapeake 
to the Bay of Fundy. On his return he wrote a letter to 
the F"rench king describing his voyage, which is believed to 
be the earliest description of the coast of the United States. 

35. Cartier's Explorations. The war which was now being 
waged between I^'rance, Italy, and Spain prevented further 
explorations for some years. In 1534 the ancient town of 
St.-iMalo was the scene of preparations for an expedition 
which was destined to be of the greatest importance to 
France. In April of that year Cartier^ sailed to- the west 
and discovered the land since called Newfoundland. Passing 
through the Strait of Belle Isle, he sailed into a gulf which 
he thoroughly explored. It was the great Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
a name given to it by Cartier on his second voyage. As the 
winter was approaching, Cartier and his fleet returned to France. 

Cartier prepared at once for another voyage, and on the 
morning of May 16, 1535, he assembled the officers and 
crew of his three vessels in the cathedral of St.-Malo, where 
they received the blessing of the Bishop and sailed for the 
St. Lawrence. Entering this mighty river, he sailed onward, 
passing the mouth of the Saguenay and afterwards the tower- 
ing promontory where later rose the fortifications of Quebec. 
Cartier with his Indian pilots pushed on up the river until 
they reached Hochelaga, as their chief town w^as called by the 
Indians. Cartier named it Mont Royal, or Royal Mountain, 
and claimed possession of the country for the king of France. 

36. Founding of Port Royal, 1605. Cartier made another 
voyage in 1541, but founded no permanent colony. War with 
Spain, as well as civil wars, so disturbed the kingdom of F"rance 
that seventy years elapsed before another expedition was fitted 
out for colonization purposes, although hundreds of vessels 

1 Cartier (car tee ay). 



34 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

sailed for fish every year to the Banks of Newfoundland and 
to secure also the furs which the Indians brought from the 
forests to the coast. 

In 1604 a French nobleman, Sieur de Monts,^ obtained a 
grant to colonize Acadia, a name given to the region from the 
fortieth to the forty-sixth parallel of north latitude, or from 
Philadelphia to the northern limits of Nova Scotia. The ex- 
pedition sailed in the spring of 1604, cruised along the coast, 
explored the Bay of Fundy, and finally established a settle- 
ment at Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia, but it was 
abandoned in 1607. In 16 10 it was again founded.^ 

37. Champlain founds Quebec, 1608. Among De Monts's 
companions was a captain of the royal navy, Samuel de Cham- 
plain, a brave soldier, a tireless and scientific explorer, whose 
love of France was equaled only by his desire to Christianize 
and civilize the Indians. He has been rightly named " the 
Father of New France." Sailing up the majestic river, past 
the wooded banks where the Indian camps sent up their curl- 
ing wreaths of smoke, Champlain landed on the site of Quebec, 
and here was established, in 1608, a trading colony, tJie first 
permanent French settlement in America? 

38. Discovery of Lake Champlain. Soon after his arrival 
Champlain joined the allied army of the Hurons and the 
Algonquins, who were at war with the fierce Iroquois. Mov- 
ing up the river called Richelieu from the great Cardinal of 
France, Champlain saw before him the beautiful-' lake that now 
bears his name. It was dotted with islands ; its banks v/ere 

1 Sieur de Monts (see ur' de mong). 

2 In 1613 an English expedition from Jamestown utterly destroyed Port 
Royal. Another settlement, St. Sauveur, on Mount Desert Island, had been 
destroyed a short time before by the English. Fathers Biard and Masse, the 
first Jesuit missionaries on American territory, were seized, the latter being 
put adrift at sea in an open boat, but was afterwards rescued. Father Biard 
was taken to Jamestown and later reached France. 

3 The attempt made to found a settlement at Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in 
1605 was, as we have seen, a failure. Five years later a permanent settlement 
was made, but Quebec had already been founded two years. 



THE EXPLORERS 



35 



covered with dark hemlocks and pines ; on the eastern hori- 
zon rose the Green Mountains, and to the west stretched the 
Adirondacks, where roamed the Iroquois. The forces met at 
the head of the lake, and the Iroquois, panic-stricken at the 







FKENXH EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS 

noise of Champlain's guns, fled for their lives. This victory 
of Champlain was a costly one for France. From this time 
the Iroquois, the strongest Indian confederation on the conti- 
nent, were the relentless, cruel enemies of the French.^ 



1 This enmity to the French was abated only when the military power of 
New France brought the Iroquois to terms. 



36 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

During the next twenty-seven years Champlain journeyed 
over the vast northern wilds from the Kennebec to the Strait 
of Mackinac, with the aid of the Franciscans and the Jesuits 
estabhshing missions and trading posts along the rivers and 
lakes. "Peaceful, benign, beneficent," says Parkman,^ "were 
the weapons of this conquest. France aimed to subdue, not by 
the sword but by the cross ; not to overwhelm and crush the 
nations she invaded but to convert, to civilize and embrace 
them among her children." In 1629 an English fleet appeared 
before Quebec and demanded its surrender. As Champlain 
could not defend his little post, he was compelled to haul down 
the flag of France. For three years the English controlled 
Quebec, but the post was restored to France by the treaty 
of 1632. 

39. The French in Florida. In 1562 Coligny,^ the leader of 
the Huguenots, or French Protestants, decided to found a colony 
on the south Atlantic coast of America, and John Ribaut^ led 
an expedition to South Carolina, where a fort was built at Port 
Royal. Leaving thirty settlers, Ribaut returned to France. 
The setdement was a failure. The colonists mutinied, put to 
sea in a worthless, leaky vessel, and would have perished prob- 
ably, had they not been picked up by an English slave vessel, 
which took them to London. The following year, 1564, a 
second party of three vessels, under the leadership of Laudon- 
niere,^ built a fort on the St. Johns River in Florida, and called 
it Fort Caroline in honor of the king of Franc?, Charles IX. 
Here they were joined later by Ribaut with reenforcements. 

40. Menendez destroys the French Settlement. Spain claimed 
Florida by right of the discovery of Columbus and Ponce de 
Leon's exploration. Accordingly an officer of the royal navy, 

1 Parkman, Pioneers of France, p. 451. 

2 Coligny (co leen'yee). Coligny's plan was to found a settlement on the 
Florida Strait, from which he could plunder the Spanish treasure ships on 
their way homeward to Spain. This settlement would also serve as a base to 
attack Havana and the Spanish ports on the Caribbean Sea. 

3 Ribaut (ree bo). * Laudonniere (low don nee air'). 



THE EXPLORERS 



37 



Pedro Mencndcz,^ was sent to drive out the French. The 
P'rench saw with alarm the Spanish \-essels off the mouth of 
the river, and at once preparations were made by both forces 
for an attack. Menendez, however, sailed down the coast a 
short distance and, landing, built a fort, which in honor of the 
day he called St. Augustine (1565), St. Augjtstinc ivas the 
first permanent Span- 
isli settlctncnt in the 
V)iited States. It was 
also the first permanent 
settlement of Europeans 
within the present limits 
of our country, Ribaut 
followed a few days later, 
hoping to catch the 
Spaniards unprepared. 
Just as the French ships 
were bearing down on 
the enemy a hurricane 
scattered the squad- 
ron in all directions. 
Menendez, in the mean- 
time, had hurried to 
P'ort Caroline and easily 
captured it, changing 
its name to San Mateo. 




OLD SPANISH CATllEDKAL IN ST. AUGUS- 
TINi:, KLUKIDA 



Some of the soldiers escaped, but 
most of the garrison were put to death. Ribaut and the sur- 
vivors of the hurricane later fell into the hands of Menendez 
and were executed.^ 



1 Pedro Menendez (pay'dro may nen'dayth). 

2 The history of these times is filled with the stories of heartless cruelties. 
When the French took Havana they put all the inhabitants to the sword, while 
the English corsairs always put to death the Spanish sailors they captured. 
Tlie shipwrecked mariners of the Armada were butchered in attempting to 
save themselves on the coast of Ireland. This, however, is no justification for 
the inhuman barbarities of Menendez. 



38 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



41. De Gourgues's Revenge. To avenge his countrymen, a 
Frenchman named Ue Gourgues ^ fitted out, at his own ex- 
pense, a secret expedition of three vessels. Sailing for Florida, 
he surprised the Spanish garrison that guarded Fort San Mateo 
and hanged every man within it. As no further attempts at 
colonization were made by France in that section, Spain kept 
possession of Florida. 



III. English Explorations 

42. Drake's Voyage, 1577-1580. For almost one hundred 
years after the voyages of the Cabots, the English appeared to 

lose interest in the work of ex- 
ploration. In 1576 Sir Martin 
Frobisher attempted in vain to 
find a northwest passage to 
Asia. In the following year, 
1577, Sir Francis Drake sailed 
from Plymouth with five vessels 
toward South America. He lost 
four of his vessels, but with the 
remaining one, the Pelican, he 
sailed through the Strait of 
Magellan. He journeyed north- 
ward along the western shore 
•of South America and the 
coasts of Mexico -and California, 
robbing the rich Spanish ves- 
sels and plundering the Spanish 
towns. He sailed as far north as Oregon, and then, returning 
because of the cold, made a landing near the present city of 
San Francisco and took possession of the country- in the name 
of the British crown, calling it New Albion.'^ He returned by 

^ De Gourgues (de goorg'). 

- England was called Albion because of the white (Latin albus) cliffs of Dover. 
As the coast here resembled the English shore, Drake named it New Albion. 




SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 



THE EXPLORERS 



39 



way of the Cape of Good Hope, and thus made the second 
circumnavigation of the world. 

In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained from Queen Eliza- 
beth a charter which granted to him any new land, not already 
occupied by any Christian prince, that he might discover in 
America. In the colony which he intended to found he hoped 
to give a refuge to the persecuted Catholics of England. In 
1583 he touched Newfoundland, and claimed it for the queen, 
but he and one of his 
ships were lost at sea 
on the return voyage.^ 

43. The Raleigh Colo- 
nists, (jilbert's grant 
was now transferred 
to his half-brother, the 
famous Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh, and in 1584 he 
obtained from Eliza- 
beth a charter to found 
a setdement upon any 
territory not already 
occupied by any Chris- 
tian power. The ex- 
pedition was sent out 

under Amadas and Barlowe and landed at Roanoke Island, off 
the coast of the present state of North Carolina. So favorable 
were the reports that Elizabeth called it Virginia, in honor of 
herself. In the following year, 1585, emigrants from England 
landed and a town was founded. It was a signal failure and 




ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



' John Davis, an English navigator, attempted in three voyages (15S5-1587) 
to find a northwest passage. He discovered the strait that bears his name. It 
was not until 1854 that the Northwest Passage, connecting the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans, was discovered by Sir Robert McClure, an Englishman. 
Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian, was the first to push a boat through the pas- 
sage, which he did in 1906. Amundsen was later (1911) the discoverer of the 
South Pole. 



40 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



the colonists were glad to return with Sir Francis Drake, who 
happened to be sailing homeward that way. Among the 
articles brought by Raleigh's colonists to England were dried 
tobacco leaves and potatoes. He planted the latter on his 
estate in Ireland. Potatoes did not come into general use, 

however, before the eighteenth 
century. 

44. The Lost Colony of Roa- 
noke. In 1587 Raleigh deter- 
mined to send out another 
colony, this time to Chesapeake 
Bay, under John White as 
governor. The settlement was, 
however, made again on Roa- 
noke Island, and White re- 
turned to London for supplies, 
leaving with the colonists his 
daughter and his granddaugh- 
ter, Virginia Dare, the first 
child born of English parents 
in America. He was detained 
in England for three years, 
because of the war with Spain,^ and when he finally reached 
the site of the settlement not a trace of the colonists could 
be found. They had disappeared, and the mystery has never 
been solved.^ Raleigh's funds were now exhausted. He 
had spent an equivalent in our money of one million dollars. 




SIR SALTER RALEIGH 



1 The leading event in this war was the destruction in 15S8 of the Spanish 
Armada, a powerful fleet of warships sent by Spain against England. The 
defeat of the Armada is considered one of the decisive battles of the world. 
It practically gave control of the sea to England and allowed that nation to 
found numerous colonies in America during the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries. 

- The only trace of the lost colony was the word Croatoan cut in the 
bark of a tree. This was the name of a small island near by, but nothing was 
found there to show the fate of the colonists. 



THE EXPLORERS 



41 



and his interests were assigned to a stock company.^ Raleigh 
was the first promoter of EngUsh colonization in America. 

45. The Voyages of Gosnold and Pring. In March, 1602, 
an luiglish navigator, Bartholomew (iosnold, sailing westward 
directly across the Atlantic from the 
Azores instead of following the long, 
tiicuitous route by way of the West 
Indies and Florida, reached a cape 
which he called Cape Cod from the 
large number of codfish found in the 
waters thereabout. Gosnold accom- 
plished nothing except, perhaps, that 
he showed a short route across the, 
Atlantic. 

In 1603 Martin Pring, on a voyage 
of trade and exploration, visited Plymouth harbor, calling it 
Whitsunday Bay. Two years later, 1605, George Weymouth 
cruised along the coast of Maine. 




SUMMARY 

I. The Spanish. Ponce de Leon, in 15 13, visited Florida and 
gave it its name. His attempt to found a colony eight years later 
was a failure. 

Corte's, in 15 19, sailed for Mexico, which he conquered two years 
later, destroying forever the power of the Aztec Confederacy. 

De Aylldn, in 1526, founded a colony on the James River in 
X'irginia. In the following year the colony was abandoned. 

De Narvaez, in 1528, led an expedition to conquer the lands north 
of the Gulf of Mexico. All the members except four perished, in- 
cluding Narvaez. 

De Soto, in 1539, attempted to conquer Florida. He reached the 
Mississippi (1541), but his expedition was a failure. 

^ Raleigh visited South America, but never came to the shores of North 
America. Queen Elizabeth died in 1603 and was succeeded by James I, who 
caused Raleigh to be arrested for high treason. After many years in prison- 
he was executed in 1618. 



42 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Coronado, in 1540, explored the Southwest as far north as 
Nebraska. One branch of his expedition discovered the canyon of 
the Colorado. 

In 1565 St. Augustine was founded. This was the first permanent 
Spanish settlement in America. 

II. The French: in the North. In 1524 Verrazano explored the 
coast of North America, from Cape Hatteras to the Bay of Fundy. 

Jacques Cartier, in 1534, discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
In the following year he discovered the St. Lawrence River and gave 
the name Mont Royal to the site of the present city of Montreal. 

In 1608 Champlain founded Quebec, the first permanent French 
settlement in America. 

The French: in the South. In 1562 Ribaut attempted to found a 
setdement, Port Royal, iij South Carolina. 

In 1564 Laudonniere built Fort Caroline, in Florida. The garrison 
was destroyed by Menendez. 

III. The English. In 1 577-1580 Sir Francis Drake made the 
second circumnavigation of the world. 

In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained a charter and made two 
fruitless voyages. Sir Walter Raleigh took up the work and attempted 
to colonize Virginia. His efforts were a failure. 

In 1587, under Raleigh's patronage, a colony was established on 
Roanoke Island, with John White as governor. White went back to 
England for supplies, and on his return after three years' absence no 
trace of. the colony could be found. 

In 1602 Gosnold explored the north Atlantic coast; in 1603 Pring 
visited the harbor of Plymouth ; in 1605 Weymouth visited the coast 
of Maine. These three voyages accomplished little of importance. 

Dates to be remembered : 

1519. Cortes begins the conquest of Mexico. 

1535. Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence River. 

1565. Foundation of St. Augustine, first permanent Spanish set- 
tlement in the present limits of the United States. 

1608. Champlain founds Quebec, first permanent French settle- 
ment in America. 

Persons to kiunv about : 

Cortes, De Soto, Cartier, Champlain, Raleigh, Drake. 



THE EXPLORERS 
PERIOD OF EXPLORATION (1492-1565) 



43 





Spanish 


Fre.vch 


English 


Portuguese 


1492 


Columbus discovers 
America 








1497 






Cabot dis- 
covers the 
continent 
of North 
America 




.501 








Vespucius 
explores 
the coast 
of South 
America 


'5'3 


Ponce de Leon dis- 
covers Florida. Bal- 
boa discovers the 
Pacific Ocean 








1519 


Magellan sails on his 
great voyage; Cortes 
begins the conquest 
of Mexico 








1522 


One of Magellan's 
ships reaches Spain. 
It was the first to 
sail around the 
world 








1524 




Verrazano explores 
the coast of North 
America . 






1532 


Pizarro begins the 
conquest of Peru 








'535 


Cartier discovers 










the St. Lawrence 






'541 


De Soto reaches the 
Mississippi 








1564 




The French settle 
in Florida 






1565 


St. Augustine founded 


The French colony 








' in P'lorida is de- 








stroyed 







44 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Map ivork : 

On a map find St. Augustine, Vera Cruz, the City of Mexico, the can- 
yon of the Colorado, Quebec, Montreal, Nova Scotia, Roanoke Island. 

Trace the route of De Soto and that of Coronado. 



REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Show how each of the following was identified with the exploration 
or settlement of the New World : Ponce de Leon, Coronado, Cartier, 
Champlain, Raleigh. What was the purpose of each ? 

2. Connect an important event with each of the following : Cortes, 
De Soto, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Verrazano, Menendez. 

3. Account for the following names : Florida, Virginia, St. Augustine, 
St. Lawrence, Montreal. 

4. Name the first permanent settlement in the present limits of the 
United States. By what nation was the settlement made.'' 

5. Give an account of French explorations in America, touching on the 
services of {a) Verrazano ; {b) Champlain. 

6. Who is often called the first great promoter of English colonization 
in America? When and where in America was the first English colony 
planted } What became of it .'' 

READINGS 

Histories. Bourne, E. G., Spain in A?/ienca. Ch.\nning, Edward, 
History of the United States, Vol. I. Cheyney, E. P., A Short History of 
England. Doyle, J. A., The English in America, Vol. I. Fiske, John, 
The Discovery of America. Thwaites, R. G., France in America. Tyler, 
L. G., England in America. 

I. Spanish Explorations. Bandelier, A. F., Cabeza de J'aca. 
CoMAN, K., Economic Beginnings of the West. King, Grace E.. /)' 
Soto and his Men in the Land of the Floridas. Lowery, W., SpanisJi 
Settlements within the United States. Lii.MAtis, C. F., The Spanish I'io- 
neers. MozANS, H. J. (J. A. Zahm), Following the Conqnistadores. Pres- 
COTT, W. H., Conquest of Mexico. Conquest of Peru. Shea, J. G., in 
WiNSOR, America, Vol. II, pp. 231-254. Wixship, G. P., fourncy of 
Coronado. Zahm, J. A., The .Search for El Dorado. 

II. French Explorations. De Costa, B. F., Verraza/io the Explorer. 
Parkal\n, Fraxcls, Pioneers of France. Sedgwick, H. D., Jr., Samuel 
de Champlain. Stei'HENS, H. B., facques Cartier. 



THPr FA'PLORERS 45 

III. English Explorations. Eggleston, Edward, Beginners of a 
Xalion. l-'isKi:. John, Old Virginia and her Neighbors. 

Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. I, p. 40 (Bull of Pope Alexander 
\'I); p. 49 (The Name of America); p. 49 (Cortes in Mexico); p. 53 (Con- 
quest of Peru). MuzzEV, Readings, p. 15 (De Soto's Journey); p. 19 (Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert's Patent). Old South Leaflets, No. 35 {Cortes' s Accotmt 
0/ the City of Mexico); No. 36 {Death of De Soto); No. 89 {Founding 
of St. Augustine); No. 91 {Founding of Quebec); No. 119 {Raleigh's 
J'irst Roanoke Colony). 

Fiction. Longfellow, .SVV- Humphrey Gilbert (poem). Muxroe, 
Kirk. Flamingo Feather (an interesting tale of the early settlements 
in Florida). ScoTT, Kenilivorth (a picture of court life in England under 
Elizabeth). 



CHAPTER III 

" The fascinating history of [the] remarkable and widespread Indian 
missions . . . furnishes some of the most brilliant examples on record of 
self-sacrificing and heroic devotion to an exalted cause." — Thwaites, 
"France in America," p. 157 

THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 

46. The Religious Orders in Florida. While the Spanish 
settlements were being founded, the religious welfare of the 
Indians was not overlooked. In 1565, as we have seen, the city 
of St. Augustine had been founded and a church built there. 
In the following year the Jesuit Fathers Pedro Martinez ^ and 
John Rogel were sent by Francis Borgia, General of the Jesuits, 
to found a mission in Florida. On arriving off that coast 
Father Martinez landed to explore the shore. Scarcely had 
he done so when a gale arose, driving the vessel out to sea. 
Father Martinez was quickly surrounded by the savage Indians 
and put to death. Ten years later other Jesuits arrived to 
establish missions ; they learned the Indian language and 
opened schools. An attempt to found a mission on Chesapeake 
Bay was made by the Jesuits under Father Segura.^ Scarcely 
had their vessel departed when they were killed by the Indians. 
The remaining Jesuits throughout Florida were thereupon 
(1572) recalled and sent to Mexico. 

The Franciscans now took up the missionary work in 
Florida, and Father Pareja^ translated many religious books 
into the native dialects. Fearful persecutions broke out from 
time to time ; the missions were destroyed, and the missionaries 

1 Martinez (mah tee'nayth). ^ Segura (say goo'rah). 

3 Pareja (pah ray'ha). 

46 



THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 



47 



fell victims to the fury of the savages. ^ When Florida was 
ceded to England by Spain, in 1763, missionary work came 
to an end. 

47. The Missionaries of New France — the R6collets and the 
Jesuits. In 161 5 four Recollets,"'^ a branch of the Franciscans, 
arrived in New France to assist Champlain in his noble efforts 
to civilize the savage tribes. They were the first priests to settle 
in Canada. They established missions along the St. Lawrence 

.'^-"^^^„ 
•-1 1^ 



" /^^, 



[I . 
1^- 




l-OUXDING A SETTLEMENT IN CANADA 

River, and preached to the tribes of the Algonquian family 
from Cape Breton Island to the headwaters of the Ottawa. 
One of their number, Father Le Caron, discovered (161 5) 
Lake Huron. In 1625 the Franciscans invited the Jesuits to 
share with them the glorious work of the missions. The 



1 " Proceedin<; to the town of Topequi. the Indians burst into the house of 
Father ]ilas Rodriguez. The missionary endeavored to show them the wicked- 
ness and folly of their conduct, which would entail punishment here and here- 
after, but finding his words of no avail, he asked the Indians to allow him to 
say Mass. They granted his request, moved by a respect which they could 
not understand ; and the good priest, with his expectant murderers for his 
congregation, offered the Holy Sacrifice for the last time and then knelt down 
before the altar to receive the death blow." — Ur. J. G. Shea, "The Catholic 
Church in the United States," Vol. I, p. 154 - Recollets (ray co lay'). 



48 ESSExNTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Jesuits accepted the invitation and were soon carrying the gospel 
far and wide in the wilderness and along the lakes and rivers.^ 

In 1629 the English captured Quebec, and the Recollets 
and Jesuits were transported to England. Canada did not re- 
main long in the hands of England, for the treaty of peace in 
1632 secured Canada again to France. The Jesuits resumed 
missionary labors in Canada the same year. When Montreal 
was founded, in 1642, the Sulpicians established themselves 
and soon founded schools and seminaries in and near Montreal, 
but the Jesuits had practically entire charge of the great tracts 
of land to the north and west. 

48. The Huron Missions. Father Jogues and the Iroquois. 
Under the zealous Fathers Erebeuf,''^ Lalemant, and Daniel — 
all three destined to suffer martyrdom under the most horrible 
tortures — the Huron tribe was visited and a central mission 
was established at Sainte Marie of the Hurons near the east- 
ern borders of Georgian Bay. Fathers Raymbault^ and Jogues 
visited Sault Sainte Marie,^ where a great gathering of Chip- 
pewa and other tribes was held. The Jesuits also made plans 
to journey to the great plains of the Far West. On one of the 
expeditions Father Jogues was returning to his missions from 
Quebec with his companion Rene Goupil,^ when they fell into 
the hands of the ferocious Mohawk. They were treated with 
inhuman cruelty. Their nails were torn out, some of their 

1 "They penetrated the Indian towns, hved with the savages, bore unpar- 
alleled hardships, ministered to the wretched, instilled the teachings of Chris- 
tianity into the minds of any who would give them a hearing, and thought no 
danger or sacrifice great enough to deter them from carrying on their work. 
The Indian world was their parish. Wherever they went they made keen 
observation of all they saw, and reported to their superior in France in a re- 
markable series of letters called the Jesuit Relations. They carefully mapped 
the scenes of their labors ; they journeyed all over the valleys of the St. I>aw- 
rence and Mississippi ; they discovered all the important lakes and tributary 
streams of the great valley. Although the Fathers served so faithfully, most 
of them met violent deaths at the hands of the savages whom they had come 
to help." — Thorpe, " History of the American People," p. 27 

2 Brebeuf (brayboof). ^ Raymbault (ram bo'). 

* Sault Sainte Marie (soo saint ma'ry). '" Rene Goupil (re nay 'goo peel'). 



THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 



49 



fingers sawed off, their bodies burned and hacked, and they 
were finally compelled to undergo the terrible journey to the 
Indian settlement on the Mohawk River. Here Rene Goupil 
was killed, but Father Jogues made his escape to a Dutch 
vessel and was hospitably received in New York, whence he 




irmmB 







THE GREAT INDIAN CONFEREXCE AT SAULT SAINTE MARIE 



sailed for France, Two years later he returned to Montreal 
and was sent to the Mohawk to ratify a treaty of peace. I le 
again returned to Montreal ; but his desire to establish a mis- 
sion among the savage Mohawk led him to again journey into 
their country, where he was treacherously seized and killed 
October i8, 1646. A shrine at Auriesville, New York, marks 
the spot of his martmlom. 

The Iroquois now spread death and destruction on every 
side; their war parties (in 1649) swept along the Great Lakes 



50 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

and the St. Lawrence River, cutting off the trade of the French 
with the West and rendering the journeys of the missionaries 
impossible. Many Jesuits were captured. Fathers Brebeuf and 
Lalemant were burned at the stake, and Fathers Garnier, 
Daniel, and Chabanel fell beneath the tomahawk. In the 
meantime dissension arose in the Iroquois confederacy, and 
the Onondaga sought a treaty of peace with the French in 
1653. They asked for the establishment of a French mission. 
The other Iroquois tribes, except the Mohawk, also made a 
treaty, and accordingly a colony was founded on Lake Onondaga 
by the French. Jesuits accompanied the settlers, founding 
chapels and traveling through the tribes preaching the word 
of God. The missions prospered, and a bright future was open- 
ing before the faithful colonists, when an Indian plot to destroy 
the entire settlement was discovered. By a stratagem ^ the 
French were enabled to withdraw and reach Quebec in safety. 
The work among the Iroquois had been apparently unsuccessful, 
but the Jesuits were not discouraged. After some severe 
defeats at the hands of the French regular troops, the Iroquois 
sought peace, and in 1667 the Jesuits were again in the Iro- 
quois country. Missions were established among each of the 
five tribes, but the rivalry between the French and English 
destroyed to a great extent the work of the good missionaries. 
One by one the missions were closed, and the country of the 
Iroquois was again left a prey to the warring tribes of the 
confederacy. It was not until 1666 that De Courcelles,^ 
the new governor of Canada, decided to wage war in earnest 
on the Iroquois. The country of the Mohawk was overrun, 
and their towns and crops destroyed. For twenty years the 
Mohawk tribe never dared to go again on the warpath against 
the French. 



1 The Indians were invited to a banquet, at which they so gorged them- 
selves that they soon fell into a deep sleep. The French took advantage of 
their helplessness and fled from the Indian encampment down the Oswego 
River to Lake Ontario. ^ De Courcelles (day cour sell')- 



THE EARLY MISSIONARIES 51 

49. The Ottawa Missions. In 1660 Father Rene Menard set 
out on liis missionary labors to the lands of the Ottawas. After 
incredible hardships he reached the bay, now called Keweenaw, 
on the south shore of Lake Superior. " The nearest altar of the 
living God," says Dr. John Gilmary Shea, "to that raised by 
this aged and intrepid priest was that of the Sulpicians at 
Montreal, yet the altars of Santa Fe and St. Inigoes (Mary- 
land) were but little more remote. The aged priest stood alone 
in the heart of the continent, with no fellow priest and scarcely 
a fellowman of European race within a thousand miles of 
him." The following year, in attempting to reach an Indian 
tribe near the headwaters of the Mississippi, he strayed from 
his companions and was never again heard from. In 1667 
Father Claude Allouez,^ Superior of the western missions, car- 
ried the gospel through the present state of Wisconsin and the 
upper part of Michigan. On the south shore of Lake Superior, 
La Pointe mission was founded and was named Saint Esprit, or 
Holy Ghost. The first mission on Lake Michigan was estab- 
lished in 1669 at Green Bay and named St. Francis Xavier. 
Allouez built up also the mission of Sault Sainte Marie. These 
were the three chief Jesuit missions of the Northwest. In 167 1 
Father Marquette founded the mission of St. Ignace on the 
Strait of Mackinac. This place became an important fur-trading 
point, until Cadillac founded Detroit thirty years later on the 
strait which connects Lake Erie with Lake Huron. Over the 
Indian trail at Detroit the Indians from the east passed in 
great numbers on western journeys. In every direction the 
tireless, faithful Jesuit penetrated the forest, preaching the 
gospel, instructing the children, and teaching the Indians 
the ways of civilization. 

50. The Maine Missions. Fathers Biard and Masse had 
established in 161 3 a mission on Mount Desert Island, but it 
was destroyed by an English expedition sent out from the 
Jamestown colony in Virginia. 

1 Allouez (al 00 ay'). 



52 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

In 1633 the Capuchin Fathers, aided by Cardinal Richeheu^ of 
France, estabUshed missions and schools for the Indians along 
the coast from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the Kennebec. 

In 1646 Father Druillettes was sent to the Abnaki on the 
Kennebec River. He was also intrusted with the duty of visit- 
ing the authorities of the English colonies in New England to 
secure a compact for trade and an alliance against the Indians, 
especially the Iroquois. He was hospitably received in Boston, 
although the most bitter penal laws were in force against the 
Jesuits. The following year he visited New Haven to meet 
delegates from the New England colonies, but his mission was 
not successful. He soon returned to Canada, and during the 
next thirty-six years there was little or no missionary work 
among the Abnaki. In 16S8 the Jesuits returned and had 
scarcely resumed their labors when war broke out in Europe 
between England and France. At once the horrors of Indian 
warfare swept like a forest fire from the St. Lawrence south- 
ward. The Indian settlements along the Penobscot were burned 
and the churches destroyed by the English colonists and their 
allies. In August, 1724, Norridgewock was captured by the 
English, and brave Father Rale,^ the faithful friend of the 
Abnaki, fell at the first onset. The church was plundered and 
destroyed, and the English returned in triumph from their 
errand of destruction. 

READINGS 

Campbell, T. J., Piotieer Priests of North America.'' Pioneer Laymen 
of iXorth America. Laut, A. C, Canada, the Empire of the jYorth. 
Parkmax, Half-Centmy of Conflict. Plie fesnits in North America. 
Thwaites, R. C, Father Marquette. Hww XWY.'i (¥.6..\ fesuit Relations. 

1 Richelieu (reesh le uh'). 

- Father Rale came to America at the age of thirty-two and, after a journey 
in the West, spent twenty-five years among the Abnaki. He wrote a dictionary 
of their language, which is now in the library of Harvard University. He was 
one of the most heroic of the many brave Jesuits who faced death hourly for 
the faith. Though he knew there was a price of one thousand pounds sterling 
on his head, he never fled from danger, and at last fell at his post of duty. 



CHAPTER IV 



THE INDIANS 



51. Families. Appearance. Let us now glance at the bar- 
barous tribes that occupied, at the discovery of America, prac- 
tically the whole country. These natives were called Indians 

by Columbus, as he 
believed the newly 
discovered land was a 
pait of India. Incor- 
lect as the name was 
ound to be, it has 
lemained to this day. 




m^ 



\o one knou^ how 
Ion<^^ the Indians had 
been in America be- 
fore the white man found them or where they came from. 
The Indians of North America, north of Mexico, were for 
the most part members of six great families.^ These families 

^ The basis of the family division of Indians is a common language. It has 
been estimated that there were between fifty-five and sixty distinct Indian 
linguistic families north of Mexico. 

53 



54 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



were the Algonquian, the Iroquoian, the Muskhogean, the 
Siouan, the Shoshonean, and the Athapascan. On the map 
may be seen the territory occupied by these famihes. 

As a rule the Indians were copper-colored and were there- 
fore called the red men. They had small black eyes, straight 
black hair, and high cheek bones. The men had beardless faces. 
When Columbus arrived the Indians were spread over all the 
Western Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to Cape Horn. 




INDIAN PICTURE WRITING 



52. Indian Homes. The homes of the Indians varied to a 
marked degree in different parts of the country. The Indians 
of the West and Northwest, who were of a ferocious nature, 
lived in wigwams, or tepees. These tepees were circular in 
shape, made with poles drawn together at the top. They were 
covered with skins or bark and could be set up easily and 
carried from place to place. These Indians moved frequently 
from one hunting ground to another and lived on game and 
fish. They cultivated the soil very little and made scarcely any 
progress in the arts except in the weaving of baskets. 



THE INDIANS 



55 



In the Southwest lived the Pueblo Indians, who had made 
great progress toward civilization. Their houses of sun-dried 
brick were built on the plateaus or in the cliffs of the vast 
canyons ; hence they were called Cliff Dwellers.^ They made 
cloth and pottery and tilled the soil.^ 

East of the Mississippi River the development of the Indians 
was more marked. Except the Iroquois they lived in wigwams 
grouped together in villages surrounded by palisades of wooden 




LONG HOUSE OF THE n<OQLOIS 



poles. The Iroquois lived in the so-called '" long houses," 
which were made of wooden poles with cross pieces, the whole 
being covered with bark. Many families lived in each house. 
53. Government. The basis of Indian government was the 
clan, which was composed of all who were descended from 

1 Throughout the Middle West hundreds of mounds and earthworks, large 
and small, have been found. They were supposed for a long time to have 
been built by a quite civilized race, which had disappeared before the landing 
of Columbus. This view is no longer held. " It is enough to say," wrote 
Major Towell of the United States Geological Survey, " that the Mound 
Builders were the Indian tribes discovered by the white man." 

2 Careful scholars estimate the Indian population north of Mexico at the 
time of the discovery of America as approximately five hundred thousand. 



56 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



^ 



.t 



the same female ancestor. Each clan had its own symbol or 
mark, called the totem, which was usually an animal, as the 
wolf or bear, and they held as sacred the animal whose image 
was their emblem. The head officer was elected and was 
called the sachem. Warriors of great ability and bravery were 
elected chiefs. In time of war one chief was selected to lead 
all the forces. All property except weapons and ornaments 
belonged to the clan and not to the 
^,.^ ^Jliy individual Indian. The union of 

many clans formed a tribe. Matters 
in dispute or great questions of war 
and peace were settled by a council 
composed of the sachems and chiefs 
of the different tribes.^ In the council 
the Indian was dignified, quiet, and 
reserved. The decision of the council 
was generally obeyed without question. 
The Indian, however, never willingly 
gave up his independence and equality. 
As a defense against hostile groups, 
tribes of the same family' at times 
joined together in a confederacy. This 
was the case with the powerful Iro- 
quois of the state of New York, as 
well as the Aztecs of Mexico. As a rule, however, there was 
little union among the tribes.^ Even those of the same family 
at times fought one another. This lack of union prevented 
united action, as we shall see, against the English colonists. 

1 " They [the Indians] have traditions but no history. Civihzed people erect 
monuments of various kinds to commemorate their own deeds and those of 
their ancestors. Throughout the length and breadth of the United States 
there does not exist, and probably there never did exist, a monument of any 
kind deliberately erected by an Indian or a tribe to commemorate an event 
in Indian history." — Thorpe, " History of the American People," pp. 1-2 

2 Among the few great Indian leaders in our history were Powhatan, 
King Philip, Pontiac, Tecumseh,, Black Hawk, Brant, Red Jacket, Sitting 
Bull, Nez Perce Joseph, and Sequoya who invented the Cherokee alphabet. 






INDIAN GRAVESTONE 

SHOWING TOTEM OF 

THE BEAR 



THE INDIANS 



57 




54. Weapons, Clothing, Food, and Customs of the Indians. 

Tin- caii\' Indians used the bow and arrow, and hatchcls with 
stone heads. Later they obtained from the white man firearms 
and became most expert in their use. They wore furs of vari- 
ous animals and buffalo hides ; on their feet they wore mocca- 
sins made of deerskin or the 
hide of the moose. The In- 
dians were swift of foot, alert, 
and very skillful hunters ; 
they knew the habits of every 
animal and bird in the forest, of every fish of the river ; they 
could follow a trail with amazing skill ; their life in the woods 
taught them to be quick-witted, patient, and keen-sighted, and 
trained them to endure calmly heat or cold, hunger or thirst ; 
they bore physical pain with marvelous bravery ; their self- 
control was wonderful ; under the most horrible torture no cry 
escaped from the lips of the Indian; on the contrary, he 
generally sneered at his torturers. 

The Indians treated their captives with merciless cruelty. 
They frequently compelled a captive to "run the gantlet." Two 
lines of strong young braves were drawn up, and the captive 
was required to 
run down the 
line between 
them while they 
cudgeled him 
with their power- 
ful war clubs. Very often they burned their captives at the 
stake after horrible tortures. At times, however, they adopted 
a captive into the tribe if he appeared to be brave and fearless. 
The Indian was by nature cheerful and lazy. He loved to 
hunt and fish and go to' war, but the tilling of the soil was 
largely the work of the women. ^ They raised Indian corn, or 

^ Women, or squaws as they were called, had great influence with the 
tribes, from the fact that the wigwams and the children belonged to them. 




WAR CLUl? 



58 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

maize, beans, squashes, tobacco, and pumpkins. As they had no 
domestic animal except the dog, they did not use a plow, but 
merely scratched the soil with a stick tipped with a sharp stone, 
which served as a hoe. From the Spaniards they secured the 
horse, and from the missionaries, especially the Franciscans in 
the Southwest, sheep and goats were obtained. They ate ber- 
ries, roots, seeds, nuts, wild rice, wild fruit, and cranberries. 
They obtained sugar from the maple tree and oil from hickory 
nuts. From the bison, deer, bear, antelope, and other animals 
meat was secured. Along the coasts they ate large quantities 
of clams and oysters. As a rule the Indian made little pro- 
vision for the future. In time of plenty he gorged himself; in 

time of famine 
,_^„^^„^^^^^^^=:^:^s=i^^sfc. he starved or 

all goods were 

NDIAN CALUMET, OR PIPE , , , . 

OF PEACE l^eld 1^ ^O"^- 

mon and suf- 
ficient was at times stored to last through the winter. Fire was 
secured by rubbing sticks together. They roasted their meat, 
or boiled it by dropping hot stones into a dish filled with water. 
No wheeled vehicle was known among the early Indians. The 
women and children were compelled to bear the tents, food, 
and utensils on the march. 

55. Method of Warfare. Religion. Wampum. The Indians 
were generally at war with each other. Their disputes fre- 
quently arose from claims to hunting territory. When prepar- 
ing for war they painted their faces with stripes of yellow, 
blue, and red ; with unearthly war whoops they then went 
forth armed with clubs, tomahawks, spears, and bows and 
arrows on their path of destruction and bloodshed. 

They wore a lock of hair called the scalp lock. To kill an 
enemy and to tear off that part of the scalp which bore the 
lock, wearing it later at the belt, was the highest triumph of 




THE INDIANS 59 

the Indian. They never fought in the open field, as the red 
man's idea of miUtary glory was simply to get the scalp of his 
enemy and to save his own. 

Their religion was a sort of nature and ancestor worship, the 
rites of which were carried on mainly by medicine men, but 
they had no temples and no priesthood. They believed a spirit 
— the Manitou — dwelt in every plant and tree, stream and 
lake. They looked to a life beyond the grave, a happy hunting 
ground, to which only the brave would be admitted. 

To ratify a treaty the Indians smoked a peace pipe, called 
the calumet. In dealing with each other they used seashells, 
which they called wampum. They kept a record of their 



.»jir. 



!lV 



^^~ 




ri! '1-, 



WA.MITM, OK IMJIAN MUNKV, MADl. Ul' SiKlXGS OF SHELLS OR HEADS 

treaties by means of the belt of wampum, the beads telling 
exactly what was done. Later the wampum became a medium 
of exchange for the colonists also, in dealing not only with the 
Indians but with each other. This was very important, since it 
allowed the settlers to establish a regular trade in furs and fish 
with the Indians and to sell them hardware and blankets. The 
Indians could not write, but painted pictures of great events. 

The Indians were very skillful in making bows and arrows, 
stone hatchets, clothing from furs, and especially the birch-bark 
canoe, by which they were able to travel easily and quickly over 
the lakes and rivers from one part of the country to another. 
These Indian trails were later the route of many of our great 
highways and railways. At many an Indian portage, or carr\'- 
ing-place of the canoe from one river to another, American 
cities with Indian names have grown up. 



6o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

56. What the Colonists learned from the Indians. The In- 
dians taught the white man many valuable things, — the worth 
of Indian corn, the modes of hunting and fishing, the value of 
the canoe, the wigwam form of tent, the use of the moccasin 
for traveling in the forest, and of the snowshoe for walking 
on the surface of the snow in winter in search of food. 

They also taught the colonists how to make corn grow in the 
forest by burning or girdling the trees, thereby killing them 
and letting in the sunshine. Thus the crops grew without the 
tedious labor of cutting down the trees. The colonists were also 
taught by the red man how to hunt and trap game and to fish 
through the ice of the lakes and rivers. When treated with 
kindness the Indian was a friend and often warned the colo- 
nists of the approach of Indian war parties. The clearing of the 
forests, however, gradually drove away the game and deprived 
the Indian of his land. He was crowded farther and farther 
backward. Wars ensued, but the Indian was always defeated, 
and to-day he is largely in government reservations. ^ 

SUMMARY 

The copper-colored natives of America whom Columbus discovered 
on his first voyage were called by him Indians. 

The Indians as a whole may be grouped into six leading families. 

The leading types of Indian homes were the wigwam, or tepee, 
long house, and sun-dried brick, or adobe, hut. 

The Indians lived partly by agriculture and partly by hunting. 

1 " The student of early American history can make one generaHzation 
with some degree of confidence : so long as the white invaders were fur 
traders and missionaries, there was peace on the frontier ; but when the new- 
comers were farmers or planters, Indian war broke out before very long. In 
other words, while their hunting grounds were preserved to the Indians, they 
looked upon the whites as the benevolent dispensers of useful utensils, pots 
of iron, articles of personal adornment, fire water, and sometimes firearms ; 
but when the whites began to plow the soil and to build houses, they seriously 
interfered with the Indians' food supply. . . . Purchase of land from Indian 
chiefs, fair trading, and the impartial administration of English law made no 
difference. Deprived of his land the Indian must fight or starve." — Chan- 
NING, " United States," Vol. I, pp. 454-455 



THE INDIANS 6l 

The basis of Indian government was the clan, made up of those 
descended from the same female ancestor. Several clans made a tribe. 

The Indians used seashells, called wampum, for barter. They 
ratified peace treaties by smoking the peace pipe, or calumet. 

The Indian was cruel in war, but was frequently a good friend. 
The Indians taught the white man many valuable things, which fre- 
quently saved the early colonists from death by famine. 

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 

1. Why and by whom were the natives of America first called Indians.'' 

2. Describe the life of the Indian in respect to (a) his home; (d) his 
food ; (r) his religious belief. 

3. What effect on American history have Indian trails produced? 

4. Mention two important things the white man learned from the Indian. 

5. Explain wampum, " running the gandet," sachem, clan, portage. 



Histories. Brixton, D.G., The Arnerica?! Race. Q\\\\k\.v.\o\\, History 
of Xciv France (translated by Dr. John Gilmary Shea). Curtis, E. S., " The 
North American Indian." Chamberlain, A. F., " North American Indians," 
in Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 452-482. Dkllenbaugh, 
F. S., Xorili A /nericans of Yesterday. Eastman, C. A., Indian Boyhood. 
Farrani), L., Basis of American History. Fiske, John, The Discovery 
of America., Vol. I. Grinnell, G. B., Stqry of the Indian. " Handbook 
of North American Indians," Bulletin A^o. jo (United States Government 
Document). Hodge, F. W., Handbook of American Indians. Hulbert, 
A. B., Historic Highways of America. James, G. W., What the White 
Race may learn from the Indian. Judd, M.C., Wigwam Stories. Lummis, 
C. F., Some Strange Corners of Our Country. Moonev, J., " Indians," 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, pp. 747-758. Parkman, The fesuits 
in A'orth America. The Conspiracy of Pontiac. Powell, J. W., Indian 
Linguistic Fatnilies. Starr, F., American Indians. Thwaites, R. G. 
(E.d.), fesuit Relations. 

Fiction. Cooper, J. F., Leatherstocking Tales. This series includes 
The Dcerslayer, The Last of the Mohicans. The Pathfinder, The Pioneers, 
and The Prairie. (An interesdng picture of Indian life in New York and 
the West.) Leland, C. G., Algonquin Legends of New England. Long- 
fellow, Hiawatha (poem). Whittier, The Bridal of Pennacook (poem). 



CHAPTER V 

" Here lay the shaggy continent, from Florida to the Pole, outstretched 
in savage slumber along the sea, the stern domain of Nature. . . . On the 
banks of the James River was a nest of woe-begone Englishmen, a hand- 
ful of Dutch fur traders at the mouth of the Hudson, and a few shiver- 
ing Frenchmen among the snowdrifts of Acadia ; while deep within the 
monotony of desolation, on the icy verge of the great northern river, 
the hand of Champlain upheld the fleur-de-lis on the rock of Quebec. 
These were the advance guard, the forlorn hope of civilization, messen- 
gers of promise to a desert continent." — Parkman, " Pioneers of France," 
pp. 295-296 

PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 

ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
Virginia, 1607 

57. Conditions leading to Colonization. Before studying the 
permanent English colonial settlements we should seek the 
reasons for the interest in colonization which arose in England 
at the beginning of the seventeenth century. For many years 
wars had been in progress on the continent of Europe. Most 
of these wars had now ceased, and the soldiers who returned 
in large numbers to England had no occupation and wandered 
here and there seeking employment. It was thought, therefore, 
they could be useful as colonists in the New World. A second 
reason was the change in the industries of England. The wool 
manufacture had become so valuable that it was more profitable 
to turn out the tenants on big farms and change these farms 
into sheep ranges. This left hundreds of men, women, and 
children homeless. Another reason was the destruction of the 
monasteries and convents by King Henry the Eighth and 
62 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



63 



Queen Elizabeth.^ Thousands of members of religious orders 
were driven out to seek homes wherever they could find them. 
The poor and friendless, who had been aided by the charity of 
the religious orders, were now compelled to look to the state 
for aid. Still another reason, and one of the strongest, for the 




tv 



:; r''^j 1KP,•-|\\'^^"^^.■ 



UUINS OF THE ABBKV OF ST. MARY AT VOKK 



interest in colonization was the dislike of many of the Protes- 
tants for the Church of England, which had been established 
by law and to which they were compelled to contribute. They 

^ As the English monarchs during the exploring and colonizing eras really 
ruled the government of England, their names frequently appear in the story 
of these times. The following list is given, therefore, that a better understand- 
ing maybe had of the succession of these rulers and the years of their reigns : 



Henry VII 1 485-1 509 

Henry VIII 1509-1547 

Edward VI 1 547-' 553 

Mary •553-'558 

Elizabeth 1 558-1 603 

James I 1603-1625 

Charles I 1625-1649 

The Commonwealth . . 1 649-1 653 



The Protectorate . . . 1653-1660 

Charles II 1660-1685 

James II 1685-1688 

William and Mary . . 1689-1702 

•Anne 1702-17 14 

<"'eorge I 1714-1727 

George II 1727-1760 

George III 1760-1820 



64 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



were anxious to go where they could estabhsh a church accord- 
ing to their own ideas. These were some of the reasons for 
the active interest in colonization in England at this time. 

58. The London and Plymouth Companies. At the opening 
of the seventeenth century England had profited little by the dis- 
coveries of the Cabots. In 1606 she opened a new era in her 
history by granting a charter to two commercial companies,^ one 
composed chieflv of London, the other of Plymouth, merchants, 

and therefore called the Lon- 
don and Plymouth companies. 
A charter was granted for 
colonizing purposes in Vir- 
ginia, at that time the name 
of the whole territory in 
America claimed by Eng- 
land."^ In the charter the 
king granted to the London 
Company the sole right to 
colonize the territory between 
Cape P^ear and the mouth of 
the Potomac — from thirty- 
four to thirty-eight degrees of 
north latitude ; to the Plym- 
outh Company he granted a similar right to plant colonies 
from the Hudson River to the Bay of Inmdy — forty-one to 
forty-five degrees of north latitude. A middle strip from 
the mouth of the Potomac to the Hudson — from the thirty- 
eighth to the forty-first degree of north latitude — was open to 

^ The immense financial loss of over one million dollars by Raleigh in his 
attempts to found a colony deterred others from undertaking similar enter- 
prises. As trading companies like the East India Stock Company had been 
enormously enriched by their commerce with the East, it was believed a joint 
stock corporation rather than a private company could better carry on so vast 
an enterprise. Hence a new corporation was formed and obtained a charter 
from King James of England. 

^ Spain claimed all this territory, but the peace of 1604 between England 
and .Spain opened the way for English colonization. 




JA.MES I 



PKRMANRNT COLONIAL SE'rTLEMENTS 



65 




CAI'TAIX JOHN SMITH 



whichever of the two companies should first colonize it. It 
was provided, however, that neither company was to establish 
a colony within one hundred miles of any existing settlement.' 

59. The Popham Colony in 
Maine, 1607. With the char- 
ters secured, both companies 
fitted out ships. The Plym- 
outh Company, under George 
Popham, sailed (May 31, 1607) 
for the coast of the present 
state of Maine and, landing at 
the mouth of the Kennebec, 
made a settlement. It was an 
absolute failure, and in the 
following year, after intense 
suffering, the settlement was 
abandoned and the colonists 
returned to England. 

60. Settlement of Jamestown, 1607. Period of Distress. In 
the meantime the London Companv had begun to colonize its 
grant. Three vessels were sent out and reached (April, 1607) 
the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. They named the capes at its 

1 As it was under this charter ihat the first permanent English folony in 
America was founded, some of its provisions may well be studied : 

1. The colonists were allowed to enjoy "all liberties, franchises, and im- 
munities " of British subjects as though they were still residing in England. 

2. Each land grant should extend inland one hundred miles. 

3. The king should have one fifth of all the precious metals mined. 

4. The colony should be governed by a Royal Council of thirteen members 
residing in England and appointed by the king. 

5. Another council of thirteen members, residing in America, should have 
local direction of affairs. 

6. Each company might coin money, punish crime, and make all laws 
necessary for the control of affairs, subject, however, to the veto of the king 
of England. 

7. All goods were to be owned in common, the products of the soil being 
deposited in a public magazine or storehouse. 

8. All laws, ordinances, and instructions were to be given by the king, 
thus giving the colonists no popular rights whatsoever. 



66 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



mouth Cape Henry and Cape Charles in honor of the two sons 
of King James. Entering a broad river, which they named the 
James in honor of the king, they landed at a point thirty miles 
up the river. Here they made a settlement, which they called 
Jamestown. TJiis zvas the first pcrnuDicnt English settlement 
in Ameriea. 

The colony was made up largely of men who were unused 
to work, — so-called English gentlemen, ^ members of the lesser 







THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN 

nobility, — and instead of building houses, planting seed, and 
preparing for the future, they looked for gold.^ Fever and 
famine overtook them. In four months one half of their 
number was dead. At this critical time a fearless, restless 

1 " They were going to a wilderness in which as yet not a house was stand- 
ing and there were forty-eight gentlemen to four carpenters." — Bancroft, 
" History of the United States," Vol. I, p. 88 

^ Under the charter all the provisions were placed in a common storehouse 
for the use of those who wished to take them. The result was that the lazy 
helped themselves generously and did not work, while the industrious had to 
labor not only for themselves but for those who were idle. The result was 
disaster, as anyone might have foretold. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS ^J 



adventurer, John Smith,i was elected President of the Council. 
At once affairs changed for the better. He made a stringent rule 
that anyone who refused to work should not eat. He procured 
food from the Indians, built huts, and explored the bays and 
inlets of the coasts, the rivers, and the surrounding country. 
Corn was planted,^ and his energy for two 
years saved the colony from utter ruin. 
61. Arrival of Reenforcements. Dale 
as Governor. About two years after the 
colony was founded, five hundred new 
colonists started from England under 
the direction of Sir Thomas Gates and 
Sir George Somers. The newcomers 
were a wretched set of men utterly unfit 
to build up a colony. While the vessel 
bearing Gates and Somers was wrecked 
on the Bermuda Islands, the rest of the 
expedition arrived. Gates and Somers 
reached Jamestown in the following 
spring in a boat of their own construc- 
tion. The colony was in a pitiable condition. John Smith 
had been wounded and and returned to England. Of the five 
hundred colonists that had arrived a few months before, only 
sixty were alive ; all were discouraged, and many resolved to 
return to England. Embarking on June 8, 1610, they were 
sailing down the James, when they met Lord Delaware, the 




J Shortly after his arrival in Virginia, John Smith was captured by the 
Indians and condemned to death. His head was already on the stone and 
a stalwart Indian stood over him with a club to beat out his brains, when 
Pocahontas, the daughter of the chief Powhatan, begged her father to save 
Smith's life. The request was granted, and Smith was adopted into the tribe. 
Many historical students, however, reject the Pocahontas story as a myth. 

- John Smith wrote that there was " no talk, no hope, no work but dig 
gold, wash gold, refine gold, load gold." Unfortunately what they were dig- 
ging was not gold at all but worthless iron pyrites. It is scarcely to be won- 
dered that the Council wrote to London asking them to send carpenters, 
smiths, and bricklayers. 



68 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

newly appointed governor, coming up the river with a fleet 
stored with provisions. Thereupon all returned to Jamestown. 
Lord Delaware remained a few months only, and for the next 
five years his successor, Sir Thomas Dale, ruled the colony 
with an iron hand. He required attendance at the service of 
the Church of England under the direst penalties, and criticism 
of that church might, under the law, be punished with death. 

62. The New Charter. Abolition of Communism. Cultivation 
of Tobacco. A new charter had been brought over in 1610 by 
Lord Delaware which made many modifications of the original 
one. It provided that the government of the colony should 
be placed entirely in the hands of the Royal Council in Eng- 
land ; that the land grants, at first extending only one hundred 
miles inland, were to run west and northwest from sea to sea, 
— from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; that no one could settle 
in Virginia unless he took the oath of supremacy ; that is, to 
acknowledge the king of England as the head of the church. 
This, of course, shut out many Protestants as well as Catholics 
from the colony .^ 

One of Dale's first acts'^ was the abolition of the system of 
placing the products in a public warehouse for the public use. 
According to this plan the industrious worker supported the 
idler. Hereafter every man must support himself, and to each 
settler were granted three acres of land. Conditions were 
improved, and the success of the colony was assured when 
John Rolfe,^ in 161 2, began the planting and curing of tobacco, 
making it equal to the Spanish tobacco which was in general 
use in England. The tobacco trade was extremely profitable. 

1 The penal laws against the Catholics were very severe. They could not 
hold office, and were punished with a severe fine if they attempted to vote. 
No priest was allowed in the colony. In a court of justice a Catholic could 
not be a witness, 

2 In the so-called Dale's Laws of 1611 the punishments were extremely 
cruel. Dale even inflicted torture on the unfortunate colonists. 

^ John Rolfe had married Pocahontas. She was the daughter of the Indian 
chief Powhatan (powhatan'). The marriage of Rolfe to Pocahontas had the 
good effect of rendering her tribe friendly to the settlers. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 69 

Large numbers of settlers arrived daily, and the output of to- 
bacco increased in eight years over four hundred and twenty thou- 
sand pounds. In 1670, fifty-one years from Rolfe's first crop, 
Virginia produced twelve million pounds. So extensive now be- 
came its cultivation that a law was passed compelling every man 
to plant a certain number of acres of corn for the food supply. 

63. Effects of Tobacco Culture. Introduction of Slavery, 
1619. The widespread cultivation of tobacco produced unc\- 
]5ccted results. Up to this time there was no commerce of any 
value with Europe, but the sale of tobacco started a profitable 
trade. The news of the success of the tobacco crop induced 
many to come to Virginia from England to take up its cultiva- 
tion. Again, the growing of tobacco required many and cheap 
laborers. Accordingly criminals were sent from the jails of 
England, orphans from asylums, and waifs from the streets. 

Laborers were also induced to come as indentured ^ servants. 
In return for their passage to America, food, and clothing, these 
indentured servants agreed to serve a term of labor of five, 
seven, or ten years in America. During these years they were 
practically slaves. At the end of the term of their contract 
they were free either to work for wages or to secure a farm 
for themselves.^ In August, 1619, a Dutch ship came up the 
James River with twenty negroes, who were sold as slaves to 
the planters. This was the beginning of negro slavery and the 
slave trade ^ in Virginia. Slavery increased until at last there 
were slaves in every colony in America. 

1 The agreement with a servant was made by a contract across which ex- 
tended a cutting like the teeth of a saw. Hence the word indenture, " to cut 
into points Hke a row of teeth." The paper was then separated, one part being 
kept by the master, the other by the servant. If both parts when put together 
exactly fitted, it was evidence that they were the same contract. 

- The colony was composed almost entirely of men. To induce them to 
settle down for life and make Virginia their home, the London Company, in 
1 619, sent over ninety young women as wives for the settlers. Whoever could 
give one hundred and t\venty pounds of good tobacco, worth about ninety 
dollars, could select one of the young women for a wife, if she were agreeable. 

^ In 16S7 an English company, led by the Duke of York, secured a monop- 
oly of the slave trade between Africa and the English colonies in .\merica. 



70 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

64. The Establishment of Representative Government. Diffi- 
culties with their governor induced the colonists to ask the 
London Company for a more representative form of govern- 
ment. A new governor, Sir George Yeardley, was appointed. 
He requested the colonists, who were scattered to the number 
of four thousand through eleven settlements, or boroughs, as 
they were called, to send two representatives to an assembly. 
This body came together in a little church at Jamestown, 
July 30, 16 19. TJiis House of Bitr-gcsses, tJie first legislative 
body ill Ameriea, zcas the bcgi>mi)ig of pop2tlai% represejitative 
government} 

65. Virginia loses its Charter, 1624. King James, how- 
ever, had become displeased with the, London Company and 
brought a suit to annul its charter. The suit was decided in 
the king's favor (1624), and Virginia became a royal province, 
passing under the direct control of the king. Nevertheless, the 
people continued to make most of their own laws. Before 
James I had effected a change in the government of the colony, 
he died (May, 1625) and was succeeded on the throne by his son, 
Charles L Seven years after his accession the king diminished 
the territory of Virginia by a grant of Maryland on the north 
and of the Carolinas on the south. Civil war soon broke out 
in PLngland, and in 1649 Charles I was beheaded.^ 

66. Grant of Virginia. The Navigation Acts. When his 
son, Charles II, finally obtained the throne in 1660, he granted 
for thirty-one years to two favorites. Lord Culpepper and Lord 
Arlington, " the entire tract of land and water commonly called 
Virginia," with all the rents and revenues. This grant, however, 

1 It was composed of the governor and two houses — the council forming 
the upper house, and the representatives of the burgesses forming the lower 
house. It corresponded in this respect somewhat with the English Parliament 
or our own Congress. After the London Company was dissolved in 1624, 
the governor and council were appointed by the king, but the House of 
Burgesses was still elected by the freemen. 

2 At this time many sympathizers of the unfortunate king, called Royalists, 
or Cavaliers, emigrated to America and settled in Virginia. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



71 



(■449) 

A N A CT 

FOR 

Incrcafe of Shipping) 

AfiJ tncourigcmcnt of ihc 

N A V I GAT 1 O N 

NATION. 




was soon annulled. In the meantime the people were suffer- 
ing from a series of oppressive acts, chief of which were the 
Navigation Acts, which were enacted between 165 1 and 1663. 
These laws gave a monopoly of the colonial commerce to Eng- 
lish merchants who, protected from competition, charged High 
prices on goods to the colonists and 
paid low prices on goods sold by 
the colonists. The Navigation 
Acts, as we shall see, were one of 
the great causes of discontent 
which finally led to the American 
Revolution.^ 

67. Bacon's Rebellion, 1676. 
Another grievance was that al- 
though Indian attacks were fre- 
cjucnt, the royal governor, Berkele\', 
would not allow the colonists to 
march against them, as he was 
gathering a fortune from the In- 
dian fur trade. Determined at 
last to take stringent measures 
against the Indians, Nathaniel 
Bacon asked Berkeley's permis- 
sion to enlist volunteers. His 
request was refused, and he there- 
upon organized companies and 

cliastised the Indians. The governor called it treason, but 
in view of Bacon's popularity with the people he pardoned 
him. A new assembly met and repealed many of the un- 
popular laws, passing others for the relief of the people. Civil 
war, however, broke out, with Bacon in charge of the forces 
against Berkeley, who was soon defeated and fled. Jamestown 
was thereupon utterly destroyed by Bacon. 

^ The original purpose of the Navigation Acts, which were enacted by 
Cromwell, was to drive Dutch shipping from the sea. 



IDtaUl), Be itCii 



Oi tilt 3iiurcarc oE 
ttic S>l)ippiiig Ai\&tlje 
ciuouTascmciit o( tl)c 
/^rtDigatiDii of tins 
j'^atioii, iDDitbtinDcr 
tlic gooo pjobiociicc 
aiiiip!Otcrfioiiof(?oD, 
IS fo great a means of 
tlicn9tifatcanDS>afc= 
t\' of tins Commons 
taby tl)isp:crciitparlia= 



jiitiit, aiiD ilK 'autDoiitp tl)ctcof, HDatfcom 
aiiDaftrtthc Jriraoapof Di.cirbcr, One tl)ou-. 
fanblitl)uiiB!tDfifti' one, anD ftoin tticnccfo!; 
ibaiDs , p.o OooDs 01 £oinnioDitics ilJliatro' 
CDtt, of tilt CioHJtl), pioDuction 01 ©aniifa 

ttOtC of Mu.AlInci D! Amcnci, OJ Of an}' patt 

ifitteofi 01 of anpJQaiiDs belonging to them. 
M anj> of tlitni , O! ttiliul) art otictiDcD o; laif 
oovbn In tlic iifual ©aps oj (faros of ilioic 
places, asuitiiof thtfingiirti plantations as 
otljits, MHJcSmpojtco o;b:ongljt inioifi'S 



Com- 



K.VCSI.MILE OF THE NAVIGA- 
TION ACT OF 1 65 I 



72 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

In the midst of his successes Bacon died, and the rebelhon 
fell to pieces. Berkeley thereupon returned and punished with 
death a large number of the rebellious leaders. ^ Bacon's rebel- 
lion was a protest against the class legislation and the corrup- 
tion" of Berkeley's government. He attempted to secure for the 
people their rights against the ever-increasing tyranny of the 
aristocratic party, which tried to evade taxation while plundering 
the public treasury. Berkeley was at last recalled to England, 
peace was established with the Indians, and some abuses were 
remedied. The rebellion taught the colonists to act together 
against despotic authority and paved the way for the later 
resistance to the power of England. 

SUMMARY 

In 1607 the first permanent English settlement in America was 
made in Jamestown. 

In 1 619 was held the first legislative assembly in the New World. 
The same year marked the introduction of negro slavery in Virginia. 

In 1676 Nathaniel Bacon rose in rebellion against the unjust laws 
and lax administration of the colony. 

New Netherland, or New^ York, 161 4 

68. Henry Hudson and the Dutch. At the beginning of the 
seventeenth century the Dutch were one of the foremost com- 
mercial peoples of the world,^ and their country, Holland, was 
one of the most prosperous in Europe. Their sails were upon 
every sea, and they were anxious for a short route to the 
Indies,^ where they could secure the spices, silks, and precious 

1 Said Charles II of Berkeley : "The old fool has put to death more people 
in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father." Charles II 
had executed only six of the fifty-nine judges who had voted for the death 
sentence of his father, Charles I. 

2 The Dutch in the seventeenth century had one half of the carrying trade 
of Europe, and Amsterdam was one of the greatest marts in the world. 

3 The Dutch used the route around the Cape of Good Hope. As this was 
controlled by the Portuguese, they sought a route around Asia or America. 



PERMANENT (^()LONL\E SETTLEMENTS 



73 



stones so eagerly desired in the markets of Europe. In 1609 
the Duteh East India Company, the most successful trading 
corporation in the world, sent Henry Hudson, an Englishman, 
to find this route to the East. He sailed northeast, but as 
his way was soon blocked by ice he changed his course to the 
westward. He came in sight of the Maine coast and cruised 
southward to the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. Turning north- 
ward again, he entered the present harbor of New York and 
explored in 1609 the mighty river that now bears his name.^ 
In his vessel, the 
Half Moon, he 
sailed as far north 
as the site of 
Albany, explor- 
ing the banks and 
looking for an 
entrance to the 
Pacific. He re- 
ceived parties of 
Indians, whom 
he treated with 
great kindness. 

They were Mohawks of the Iroquois league, the strongest 
Indian power in America, and ever afterward the Dutch and 
Iroquois preserved ties of the strongest friendship. From the 
narrowing width of the river, Hudson knew he had not found 
the route to the East. On his return he sent to Amsterdam 
a glowing account^ of the country he had visited and of the 

1 Verrazano on his great voyage (see sect. 34) discovered the mouth of the 
Hudson in 1524. Estevan Gomez, sailing from Spain, visited it in 1525, 
naming it River of Saint Anthony. Hudson was the first to explore it 
thoroughly, calling it River of the Mountains. It was also called the Mauri- 
tius in honor of Maurice, stadholder of the Dutch Republic. Later, however, 
it was justly given the name Hudson in honor of the great explorer. 

2 Of the country he wrote : " The land is the finest for cultivation 
that I ever in my life set foot upon and it also abounds in trees of every 
description." 




THE HALF MOO.X ON THE HUDSON 



7A 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



great possibilities of the fur trade. ^ At once traders poured in 
from all parts of Europe,'^ and numerous posts were established 
for dealing with the Indians. 

69. Settlement of Manhattan. The Dutch West India Com- 
pany. Along the Hudson River, called by them the North 
River, the Dutch built trading places, — one, in 1614, on 
Manhattan Island, which became the present city of New 




WATER FRONT IX EARLY NEW YORK 



York, and another at Fort Orange,^ on the present site of 
Albany. Southward they pushed their trading posts, one being- 
built near the present site of Camden, New Jersey, on the 

1 England sent Hudson later to find a northwest passage. He discovered 
the bay and strait which bear his name, but he and his crew suffered fearfully 
from the intense cold. At length the crew mutinied and put Hudson with 
eight companions in a boat and set them adrift. Tlie unfortunate explorer 
was never again seen nor heard from. 

2 Furs were of the greatest value to the Dutch traders because of the 
severe winters in northern Europe. Russia had supplied most of the furs up 
to this time. 

^ This place was so named in honor of the ruling house of the United 
Netherlands. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



75 



Delaware. This river was called by them the South River. 
They named the whole country New Netherland and claimed 
all the territory from the Delaware to the Connecticut. A new 
corporation called the Dutch West India Company took the 
place of the Dutch East India Company in 162 1. The chief 
objects in the establish- 
ment of this Dutch West 
India Company were the 
pillage of Spanish settle- 
ments and fleets and the 
extension of profitable 
commerce. Its field was 
the west coast of Africa, 
America, and the islands 
of the Atlantic. 

70. Purchase of Man- 
hattan. The Patroons. 
In 1626 a colony under 
(Governor Peter Minuit 
was sent out to the rude 
trading post on Man- 
hattan Island, where a 
settlement was estab- 
lished. The officials were 
appointed by the com- 
pany and no local self-government was allowed. The Indians 
sold the island for trinkets worth about twenty-four dollars.^ 
A fort was established, and the Indian name Manhattan was 
first given to the settlement, but it was later named l-'ort 
Amsterdam. This was the beginning of the present great 
city of New York. 

Three years later (1629) the company offered a grant of 
land on any river or bay except on Manhattan Island to the 

1 This was at the rate of about two cents an acre. The present assessed 
valuation of Manhattan Island with its buildings is over five billion dollars. 




OCEAN 



ni'TCH COLONIAL CLALMS 



^6 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



founder of a settlement of fifty persons over fifteen years of 
age. The grant gave to the founder of New Netherland, who 
was to be called a patroon/ a tract of sixteen miles frontage 
on one side of a river or eight miles on each side. The 
patroon was given practically absolute power over his estate 
and tenants. He had the right to appoint officers and magis- 
trates and to act as judge in civil and criminal courts, which 
he was permitted to establish on his lands. The patroon was 
required to clear the land, put up buildings for the tenants, 
and provide cattle and tools. The settler, on his part, could 
not leave the estate to become the tenant of another. He also 




THE BOWLIXG GREEN 



agreed to bring his grain to the patroon 's mill and pay for the 
grinding ; to cultivate the patroon's land for ten years ; to use 
only cloth made in Holland ; to neither fish nor hunt on the 
patroon's property without his permission. If the tenant died 
without will, the patroon secured all his property. In 1638 
the Dutch West India Company found the patroon system to 
be in general a failure, as it led colonists to go to New Eng- 
land. The company therefore abolished the monopolies and 
gave settlers the right to secure land for themselves. ^ 

71. The Dutch Governors. Peter Stuyvesant. Under a series 
of incompetent and corrupt governors the colony fared ill. In 

^ Patroon means " protector " or " benefactor," like our English word patroti. 
- Father Jogues, the Jesuit, visited Manhattan Island in 1643 and found 
eighteen different languages spoken there even at that early date. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



77 



1647 Peter Stuyvesant arrived as governor. He was a tyran- 
nical, dictatorial man who had no faith in the people. ^ He 
resolved to rule with absolute authority, and generally suc- 
ceeded as there was no representative government in the 
colony. He declared that his oath of office forbade him to 
allow any religion except the Dutch Reformed, and he insisted 
on maintaining this church at the public expense. Dissenters 
were severely punished. Stuyvesant, in fact, threatened to 
hang any man who appealed from his decisions to the rulers 
in Holland.^ In 
1655 he attacked 
the Swedish settle- 
ments'^ on the Del- 
aware and annexed 
them to New Nether- 
land. He also at- 
tempted to annex 
Connecticut, but 
was unsuccessful. 

The English 
claimed the entire 
coast by virtue of 
Cabot's exploration. 

and saw with a jealous eye this Dutch settlement thrust in 
between the Virginia and the New England colonies. In 
spite of the Navigation l>aws Dutch vessels carried tobacco 
from the English colonies to Europe, and goods from New 
Ncthcrland were easily carried over the borders to the English 




PETER STUYVESANT 



1 Stuyvesant had lost a leg in the wars of Holland and was called "Old 
Silver Leg" by the English and " Ilard-Headed Peter" by the Dutch. 

2 New Netherland was one of the few places in the New World where 
torture could be and legally was used on prisoners. 

' These settlements had been made in 1638 by Swedish colonists who built 
a fort named Fort Christina in honor of the Queen of Sweden. This fort 
occupied the site of the later city of Wilmington. The Swedes named the 
country New Sweden. 



78 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

colonies. This loss of revenue was a source of great irri- 
tation to the English government. King Charles, therefore, 
resolved to take possession of the colony of New Netherland. 
As a first step he granted, in March, 1664, to his brother 
James all eastern Maine and at the same time all the land 
between the Connecticut River and the Delaware. This grant 
covered, of course, the entire Dutch colony of New Netherland. 

72. The English capture New Netherland. No time was lost, 
for five months later (August 1 8, 1 664) a fleet appeared before 
New Amsterdam and. demanded its surrender. Stuyvesant 
stormed with great rage and declared he would never sur- 
render. The town, however, was in no condition for defense. 
The people were weary of Stuyvesant's despotic rule, and the 
flag of Holland was hauled down without a shot's being fired. 
The colony of New Amsterdam received the name of the 
Province of New York in honor of James, brother of the 
king, who was both Duke of York and Duke of Albany. ^ 
With the cession of the Dutch colony, the English now con- 
trolled the Atlantic coast from the Bay of Fundy to Florida. 

73. The Duke's Laws. New laws, called the " Duke's laws," 
were enacted in 1665. They were drawn up by Governor 
Nicolls and a convention of representatives of the people. 
They were applied at first only to Long Island, but later to 
the whole province. These laws assured trial by .jury, equal 
taxation, election of town officers by landholders, tenure of 
lands from the Duke of York, and a recognition of negro 
slavery. No representative assembly was granted, however, 
to the people. 

In 1673 war again broke out between Holland and England, 
and New York surrendered to a Dutch fieet, but it was 
returned to the English at the signing of the treaty of peace 
in 1674. At this time Sir Edmund Andros was appointed 
governor of New York. 

1 The West India Company's trading-post on the upper Hudson was named 
Albany from James's second title. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 79 

74. Governor Dongan. In 1683 Thomas Dongan, a native 
of Ireland and a Catholic, was appointed governor,^ and under 
his direction the first legislative assembly held in New York 
met in October of that year. A Charter of Liberties was 
drawn up,^ guaranteeing freedom 

of conscience and religious liberty ^^Hv'.,^»rvk 

to all Christians. Trial by jury i(f . 

was assured, and no tax could be k i^^' 

c - ■ ■■ 1 
levied without the consent of the |lr"^ .- 

assembly, Dongan settled the '^ ' - : 

boundary dispute with Connecti- \ ' ^ 

cut, made a peace treaty with the ''• ,v ''^\ 

Iroquois Indians who acknowl- - \_. ' y \ 

edged themselves as subjects of 

England, and did all in his power x, /. *- - -^^ 

to prevent the southward exten- ^'x^y//^-^^\ 

sion of French power.-'^ ''« ^ 

75. Leisler's Rebellion. After james n 
the departure of Dongan strife 

broke out in the colony. On the flight of James II, in 1688, 
from the throne of England a merchant named Jacob Leisler 
seized the government of the colony on the pretense of holding 
it for William and Mary, the new king and queen of England. 

1 " Saturday, the 25th of August, 1683, was a memorable day in the history 
of America, for it was then that Colonel Thomas Dongan arrived in New 
\'ork. . . . With his coming a new epoch opened in the history of the province 
of New York, in the history of English-American colonies, and in the history 
of the international relations of England and France. . . . To him must be 
given the credit for first seeing the importance of the position of New York 
and the Iroquois in the international politics of North America." — Chaxning, 
" United States," Vol. II, p. 143 

- The Charter of Liberties was sent to England for the approval of the 
Duke of York. Before it was signed Charles II died, and his brother, the Duke 
of York, became king. He repealed the Charter of Liberties, and finally 
annexed New York to New England under a single governor. Sir Edmund 
Andros. The consolidation of all the colonies north of Pennsylvania under 
Governor Andros took place in 1686. 

3 The first Latin school in New York was opened by the Jesuits in 1683. 



8o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

He proceeded at once to vent his hate on the Cathohcs. Many 
of the ablest and noblest men in the colony who had refused 
to acknowledge his authority were thrown into prison on the 
charge of making alliance with the Catholics. 

Believing that there was danger of an invasion by the 
French from Canada, Leisler, in 1690, called a congress of 
the American colonies to attack Canada. This zvas the first 
of the congresses that finally resjdted in the Congress of 
Philadelphia, where onr indcpoidencc %vas proclaimed. 

On the arrival of British troops Leisler refused to give up 
the fort and fired on the king's soldiers, killing a number. 
He was soon abandoned by the people and, being captured, 
was tried by court-martial for murder and treason. He was 
found guilty and was executed (May 16, 1691). 

76. Persecution of Catholics. Royal Colony. A new assem- 
bly met after Leisler's death and reenacted Dongan's charter 
of 1683, giving New York a permanent representative assem- 
bly. This new charter granted by William and Mary had one 
important change, — the right of worship according to the 
Catholic religion was denied. In 1700^ and 1701 laws were 
passed expelling Catholic priests from the colony ; if any re- 
mained they would be punished with imprisonment for life. 
Any priest coming into the province of his own accord would 
be hanged. To. Catholic laymen was denied the right to vote 
for any office.^ 

In 1 74 1 a new persecution broke out. A depraved woman 
claimed to have discovered a plot on the part of the Catholics 
and negroes to burn the town. The latent bigotry now burst 

1 " Throughout the colonies," says Stille, in Ponisyhania Magazine of 
History and Biography, Vol. X, p. 365, " at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century the man who did not conform to the established religion of the colony 
... if he were a Roman Catholic, was wholly disfranchised. To him there was 
not even the legal right of public worship." 

2 In 1734 occurred the famous Zenger trial. Zenger was a publisher and 
in his newspaper had called attention to the corruption of the government of 
the colony. He was at once arrested, tried for libel, and acquitted. The 
Zenger case is the corner stone of the freedom of the press in America. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 8 1 

into flame, and before the panic had ceased four whites were 
hanged ; of the negroes, seventy were transported, eighteen 
were hanged, and fourteen burned at the stake. 

From 1685, when the Duke of York ascended the Enghsh 
throne, until the Revokition New York remained a royal colony. 



In 1 609 Henry Hudson, in the Half Moon, explored the Hudson 
River and gave to the Dutch possession of the country. They called 
it New Netherland. 

In 16 1 4 New Amsterdam was founded on Manhattan Island. 

In 1 664 the English captured the Dutch colony, naming it New York. 

In 1683 the first legislative assembly was held under Governor 
Dongan. The Charter of Liberties passed by this assembly guaran- 
teed religious liberty and trial by yxvj. 

In 1690 Leislcr assembled the first American colonial congress. 

REVIEW EXAMLNATION 

1. Mention three European nations that made settlements in North 
America, and the first permanent settlement made by each. 

2. Mention and explain : {a) three inducements that tended to bring 
settlers to the American colonies ; {b) two difficulties they had to face. 

3. Give an account of the efforts of Sir Walter Raleigh to plant colo- 
nics in America, and state the results of these efforts. 

4. Give two reasons for the interest taken by Englishmen in coloniza- 
tion in the early seventeenth century. 

5. Give a brief account of the settlement of Mrginia. What two 
■forms of government did it have? 

6. Write on the topics : (a) first Navigation Act ; (b) Bacon's Rebellion. 

7. Show how the colonists of Virginia secured a representafive 
government. 

8. Give an account of the settlement of New York by the Dutch, 
covering {a) the purpose of the first settlers ; {b) the location of the first 
two settlements ; {c) the introduction of the patroon system. 

9. Describe the setdement of New Amsterdam and its capture by 
the English. 

10. Give an account of the rule of Peter Stuvvesant. 



82 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



New Jersey, 1617 



77. Settlement by the Dutch. Grant to Berkeley and 
Carteret. In 16 17 Dutch fur traders built a fort at Bergen on 
the west bank of the Hudson River and claimed the country 
as a part of New Netherland. This claim, however, was denied 
by the English. When, therefore, the English had obtained 
control of the province of New Netherland, the Duke of York, 
in 1664, gave the land between New York Harbor and Delaware 
Bay to two court favorites. Lord Berkeley 
and Sir George Carteret. Berkeley took 
the southwestern portion, called West 
Jersey, while the northeastern portion, 
called East Jersey, was given to Carteret. 
Carteret had been governor of the 
island of Jersey, off the English coast, 
and had gallantly defended the island 
against the Puritan forces during the 
Civil War in England. The province 
was therefore called, in his honor. New 
Jersey. 

The constitution under which the 
settlers lived gave them a voice in the 
lawmaking, as no tax could be levied 
without the consent of the assembly of their representatives. 
Freedom of worship was promised ; but, as was the case in 
most of the colonies, it was not practiced in regard to Roman 
Catholics. In Newark only members of the Congregational 
church could vote. 

A party of settlers under Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir 
George, founded, in 1665, Elizabeth, the first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement in the state. A short time later Newark was 
founded by emigrants from the New Haven colony. ^ 

1 These colonists emigrated because of the union of the New Haven 
colony with Connecticut. 



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SETTLEMENTS IN NEW 
JERSEY 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 83 

78. Sale of New Jersey to the Quakers. A Royal Province. 

In 1673, because of endless disputes over the payment of rent^ 
between the settlers and Berkeley, the latter sold West Jersey 
to the Quakers. These Quakers had fled from persecution in 
England.'^ Nine years later, on the death of Carteret, the Quakers 
secured East Jersey also. In 1688 both East Jersey and West 
Jersey were added to New York and to New England under 
the governorship of Sir Edmund Andros. The revolution in 
England forced out Andros from the governorship, and in the 
confusion that ensued as to the right of ownership the king 
took the colony as a royal province (1702). In this year liberty 
of conscience was proclaimed for all except Catholics and 
Quakers. Eor the next thirty-six years New Jersey was under 
the governor of New York, but in 1738 it was allowed to have 
its own governor. 



In 1 61 7 the Dutch built a fort at Bergen on the west shore of 
New York Harbor. 

In 1664 the Duke of York granted to his friends, Berkeley and 
Carteret, the present territory of New Jersey, which had been claimed 
by the Dutch. The territory was divided, Carteret taking East Jersey, 
and Berkeley taking West Jersey. Elizabeth, the first permanent Eng- 
lish setdement in the state, was founded in 1664. 

In 1667 Newark was built by emigrants from New Haven. 

In 1673 the Quakers purchased West Jersey, Berkeley's share of 
the territory, and in 1682 they purchased East Jersey, Carteret's 
portion. This gave them control of the whole of New Jersey. 

In 1688 the entire colony was added to New York and New 
England under Andros. In 1702 it became a royal province. 

1 The settlers had bought their land from the Indians, and some of them 
had also secured a grant from the Duke of York. They therefore refused to pay 
rent to Berkeley under his grant, as, they claimed, they already owned the land. 

^ The Society of F'riends, or Quakers, was founded by George Fox in 
Kngland. He was thrust into prison, but his doctrines spread rapidly. The 
Ouakers taught the equality of man, and they believed there should be uni- 
formity in dress. They recognized no title and kept their heads covered 
before king or peasant. They were opposed to war and slavery. 



84 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Massachusetts: Plymouth Colony, 1620; Massachusetts 
Bay Colony, 1630 

79. The Pilgrims in Holland. We have already seen (sect. 59), 
how Popham, sent by the Plymouth Company, tried to found 
a settlement at the mouth of the Kennebec River in 1607, 
and failed. In 1614 John Smith of Virginia ^ visited this 
coast, of which he made a map and gave to it the name New 
England. His attempts at settlement, however, in this section 
were a failure. 

In 1608 a party of English Protestants who were dissatisfied 
with the Church of England left the little village of Scrooby 
in central England.^ They settled in Holland at Amsterdam, 
and a little later in Leyden. They found it difficult to earn a 
living in the small and thickly settled country of Holland. 
They also feared that their children would marry into Dutch 
families and would forget the English language and English 

1 In the meantime the French htid begun to settle in Nova Scotia and 
Maine and the Dutch appeared along the Hudson River. It looked as if the 
English were to lose possession of the entire coast of northern America, until 
Argall, sent from Virginia in 1613, destroyed the French settlements in Maine. 

2 Although the Protestant Reformation was finally established in England 
in 1534 when Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy recognizing the king 
instead of the Pope as head of the Church in England, many of the older 
ceremonies of the Catholic Church were continued in the Church of Eng- 
land, as the new religious system was called. There were many, however, in 
the new English Church who were greatly dissatisfied. The general name 
of Puritan was given to all Protestants who opposed the Church of England. 
Among these Puritans some still attended regularly the services of the Eng- 
lish Church, but wished to change it by abolishing the sign of the cross in 
baptism, the use of the surplice, statues of the saints, the veneration of relics, 
the use of holy water, the use of the ring in the marriage ceremony, and many 
other ceremonials. These people were named Nonconformists and were the 
most numerous of the Puritans. Another group of Puritans demanded for 
each church an independent rule. They were therefore called Independents, 
or Separatists, as they refused to attend at all the services of the Church of 
England. The Separatists who went to Holland were called Pilgrims. Against 
all these sects, as well as against the Catholics, Queen Elizabeth and King 
James I put into effect severe penal laws, and many suffered imprisonment 
and fines before they left England. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 




,(;ri.m homes IN" i:x(;laxd and Holland 



customs. They also foresaw the war which was about to break 

out between Spain and Holland and wished to avoid it.^ They 

decided, therefore, to 
emigrate to America, 
and obtained from the 
London Company per- 
mission to settle in Vir- 
ginia. Leaving the port 
of Delftshaven in July, 
1620, on the Spccd- 
iK.'cll, they touched at 
Southampton, England, 
where another vessel, 
the Mayflcnver, joined 

them, and together they set sail with high hopes for America. 
80. Arrival at Cape Cod. The Mayflower Compact. The 

Spccckvell was found to be unsafe, however, and returned. All 

who desired to continue 

crowded onto the j\Iay- 

Jiozvcr, which sailed with 

one hundred and two 

passengers. Early in 

November they sighted 

the shores of Cape Cod, 

far to the north of their 

destination. As this sec- 
tion was the property of 

tlie Plymouth Company, 

and they were to settle 

in the territory of the 

London Company, the}- started again southward. They were 

driven back by violent weather, and finally, anchoring in the 

harbor of Provincetown, they decided to get permission from 

1 This was the terrible Thirty Years' \Var (161S-164S). which deluged so 
much of northern Europe in blood. 




YFLOU'PIR 



86 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY- 



the Plymouth Company to settle on their land. Some of the 
members, taking advantage of the fact that they were hot land- 
ing in Virginia, declared their independence of all authority. 
The colonists, therefore, drew up in the cabin of the May- 
floiver a compact to enact "such just and equal laws . . . 
as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general 
good of the Colony, unto which we promise all due submission 
and obedience," This was the beginning of self-government 

in New England. They con- 
firmed the appointment of 
John Carver as governor and 
for some weeks, while living 
on the ship, explored the 
coast. 

81. The Landing at Plym- 
outh. The Treaty with the 
Indians. On December 21 
they resolved to land at a 
place now called Plymouth, 
after Plymouth, the last port 
they left in England. ^ They 
suffered so severely from the 
cold winter and scarcity of 
food that one half of the colony perished during the winter 
and spring, among them John Carver, the governor, who was 
succeeded by William Bradford. 

The Plymouth Company was dissolved at this time, and 
its successor, the Council for New England, granted to the 
Pilgrims a tract of land between the fortieth and forty-eighth 
degrees of north latitude, and extending from sea to sea, or 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 




SETTLEiMENTS OF PILGRIMS AND 
PURITANS 



1 This place had been visited by Champlain and called by him Port St. I.ouis. 
A granite bowlder, — the well-known Plymouth Rock, — which it is claimed 
served as a landing place for the Pilgrims, is preserved to-day at Plymouth, 
but it is not generally believed to be authentic. 



P.ERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 87 

One of the wise acts of Governor Carver before his death 
was the peace treaty with the Indians. Early in the spring of 
162 1 there appeared in the colony an Indian named Samoset. 
He had learned to speak a little English from the fishermen 
along the Kennebec River, and welcomed the English colonists 
to the land. He introduced 

to the Pilgrims the local In- I, -O C 

dian chiefs Squanto and INIas- j^^'*^"'^ 

sasoit. A treaty was made yf"^ Vf' 

with Massasoit which was jf^i\^' .f^ y , 

faithfully obser\-ed 'for fifty- ^q*- ■-y-p 

four years. 1 t ^~r^ l] rrp 

Along Narragansett Bay ' '/Jl^'. | .-_^^ 

lived the powerful tribe named '"'■., jij 'M W j||t j|| ^^p"^ 

the Narragansett, whose chief ■ ^ -^'E^"^^!^-!! ""^^ ''iWlft 
was Canonicus, They were ~5:i^_- . f ; jI^^^^^^T 

the enemies of Massasoit. J :/ W^^ Pv -"^ 

Desiring to terrify the colo- •- <^ . , — . - '- 

nists, they sent to Governor .r'n^"->„ 
Bradford a bundle of arrows 
which were tied together by canopy over Plymouth rock 
the skin of a rattlesnake. 

Without the least fear Bradford filled the skin with powder 
and ball and sent it back. Canonicus became frightened and 
decided it was best to leave the colonists in peace. 

The military leader of the colony was Myles Standish, the 
brave, energetic, heroic warrior who spread terror among the 
hostile Indians. 

82. The Town Meeting. One of the most famous institu- 
tions founded in the New World by the Pilgrims was the " town 
meeting." Here the freemen who were members of the local 

1 A plague, probably of smallpox or measles, had swept away most of the 
Indians around Plymouth a short time before the Pilgrims arrived. The 
Pilgrims used their deserted cornfields. Squanto could speak English, as he 
had been kidnaped and taken to Europe but had been returned. 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



churches met together and voted directly on all questions in- 
stead of thVough representatives. It was the purest form of 
democratic government. The Plymouth colony grew slowly. 
Nine years after its establishment it had only three hundred 
members, and it was finally (1691) absorbed by the Massachu- 
setts colony. The Plymouth colony has an important place in 
our history since " as the first successful colony on the New 
England coast, it was the cause and the beginning of the other 




SAMOSET WELCOMES THE ENGLISH 

colonies of New England and the second step in founding the 
great republic of the United States." ^ 

83. The Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Puritans in England 
now followed the example of the Pilgrims. They obtained a 
tract of land stretching from three miles north of the Merrimack 
River to three miles south of the Charles and westward to the 
Pacific Ocean. Through fur trading, fishing, and agriculture it 
was hoped to make the colony profitable. 

An expedition led by John Endicott sailed with sixty colo- 
nists and founded Salem in 1628. In the following year a 
royal charter was secured from King Charles I which established 

1 Tyler, England in America, p. 182. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



89 



the corporation as the " Governor and Company of Massachu- 
setts Bay in New England." It was to be managed in England 
by a governor, deputy governor, and a council of eighteen 
assistants to be elected annually by the members or freemen 
of the company. In 1629 the management decided to move 
to New England that the colony might be better governed. 




COLONIAL NEW 



As the Puritan idea was to establish a state on the basis of 
the Old Testament, only Puritan church members were allowed 
to vote in the new corporation which ruled the colony. 

The colonists under Endicott shortly after their arrival in 
Salem separated from the Church of England. They established 
independent churches after the model called Congregational, 
where each parish was an independent, self-governing church. 
The General Court of the colonv ordered that " for the time 



90 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

to come no man should be admitted to the freedom of this 
body poHtic but such as are members of some of the churches 
within the Hmits of the same." ^ 

In June, 1630, John Winthrop, who had been elected governor, 
reached Salem with one thousand Puritans. He moved later 
to Charlestown, and still later to a place the Indians called 
Shawmut. The English named it Tri-mountain,. or Tremont, 
because of its three hills. This name was later changed to 
Boston, after the English town whence many of the settlers 
came. A throng of immigrants now poured in, no less than 
twenty thousand arriving in ten years.^ Among the settlements 
were Roxbury, Dorchester, Watertown, and Newtown, or 
Cambridge as it was later called.^ The settlers at once engaged 
in farming, cod-fishing, and the building of ships. 

84. Roger Williams founds Providence. In 1633 Roger 
Williams, pastor of a church in Salem, advocated the separa- 
tion of Church and state and full freedom of religious belief. 
He also declared that the Indians, not the king of England, 
owned the land, and from the Indians the land must be bought 
if they would have an honest and valid title. He also denied 
the right of the magistrates to punish for failure to follow 
Puritan customs as to church attendance, dress, or amusements. 
For these and other opinions he was finally ordered to sail for 

1 "Not only was citizenship based on church membership, but the Bible 
was the only law-book recognized by the Court of Assistants. Of this book 
the [Puritan] ministers were naturally thought the best interpreters, and it 
thus became the custom for the magistrates to consult them on all questions 
of importance. Offenders were not merely lawbreakers, but sinners, and their 
offenses ranged from such as wore long hair to such as dealt in witchcraft and 
sorcery." — Tyler, " England in America," p. 202 

" This migration was caused largely by the troubles in England where King 
Charles I, having dissolved Parliament in 1629, was ruling and taxing the 
people as he chose. Through lack of funds he was at last compelled to call 
Parliament together in 1640. Civil war followed, and King Charles was 
beheaded in 1649. See Montgomery's "Leading Facts of English History," 
p. 244, or Cheyney's " Short History of England," Revised Edition, p. 442. 

^ It was changed to Cambridge because most of the college graduates in 
the colony had been educated at the University of Cambridge in England. 



TERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 91 

England, but he escaped (1635) into the forest, where he 
secured shelter from friendly Indians. At the head of Narra- 
gansett Bay he bought land from the Indians and founded 
(1636) the city of Providence. At the same time Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson was driven out of the Puritan colony of Massachu- 
setts Bay for her peculiar religious beliefs. She and her 
friends bought the island of yXcjuidneck, — afterward called 
Rhode Island. 

85. The New England Confederation, 1643. In 1643 the 
four colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, 
and New Haven organized a military league or federal union. ^ 
It was called " the 
United Colonies of 
New England," but 
is generally known 
as the New England 
Confederation, and 
was designed for pro- 

tection against the ,,,„,,,„,„, ,,,,,,1,., .^ m.ssachls.iis 
Indians, the French, 

and also the Dutch, who were still claiming the fertile Connecti- 
cut River valley. Another reason for the union was the Civil 
War in England and the necessity of being prepared for the 
result of that struggle. Still another reason was the desire 
to maintain the absolute rule of the Puritan Church in the 
New England colonies. Maine and Rhode Island were refused 
admission because they did not agree with the authorities 
of the .Massachusetts Bay colony on either government or 

1 At this time it is estimated that there were about twenty-three thousand 
five hundred people in these four colonies, Massachusetts having fifteen 
thousand, I'lymouth three thousand, Connecticut three thousand, and New 
Haven two thousand five hundred. 

There were eight commissioners, two from each colony, elected annually, 
and all members of the Puritan Church. They were given very large power, 
such as declaring war or peace, admitting new members, adjusting Indian 
affairs, securing justice to each member of the Confederation, and returning 
fugitive slaves. Each colony, however, managed its own local affairs. 




92 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

religion.^ The Confederation lasted for forty years, and is 
of importance as it was an early experiment in united action 
by the American colonies and may be called the first step 
toward the Constitution of the United States. 

In 1652 Massachusetts issued its own coinage. One of the 
coins was the famous Pine Tree Shilling, on which the name 
of England and its king nowhere appear. 

86. Persecution of the Quakers. In 1656 the first Quakers 
appeared in Massachusetts. Because of their independent reli- 
gious views they had already been a source of grave trouble 
to the English authorities, who had tried in vain to crush 
them. No less than four thousand were in English jails at one 
time. Their appearance in Massachusetts created great alarm, 
and they were at once shipped back to England. A law was 
enacted against them which provided for flogging and imprison- 
ment. These laws did not deter the Quakers in the least. 
They poured into the colony, denounced the magistrates, and 
defied the Puritan clergy. 

In 1657 another law was enacted, that Quakers should have 
their ears cut off and their tongues pierced with red-hot irons. 
In 1658 the Massachusetts General Court passed a law pro- 
viding the death penalty for returning Quakers, and in 1659 
four of them were hanged on Boston Common, while others 
were flogged from town to town, imprisoned, starved, and 
otherwise maltreated. A reaction soon set in. While the 
magistrates, led chiefly by Endicott and the Puritan clergy, 
endeavored to keep up the persecution, the people revolted, 
and gradually the Quakers enjoyed the rights that belonged 
to them as free-born English subjects. 

87. King Philip's War, 1675-1676. The treaty which had 
been made with Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoag tribe, had 

1 According to \Yinthrop, Maine was rejected because Agamenticus, or 
York, the leading place, had elected a tailor as mayor and an unorthodox 
preacher as minister. Of Rhode Island, Winthrop said : " We have no con- 
versing with them, nor desire to have, further than necessity or humanity may 
require." 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



93 



been strictly kept until his death in 1660. Massasoit left two 
sons, who had been given the names Alexander and Philip.^ 
Alexander died in 1662 after a visit to Plymouth. Philip 
believed he had been poisoned and at once set out to make 
war on the English, who were gradually settling around him 
nearer and nearer and compelling him to give up more of his 
land year by year and destroying the hunting grounds. In 
1675 Philip let loose his 
warriors, and for two years 
the horrible warfare was 
carried on throughout Mas- 
sachusetts, Rhode Island, 
and Connecticut. At length 
he was hemmed in in a 
swamp near Mount Hope, 
Rhode Island, and was 
killed August 12, 1676. 
His hands were cut off and 
sent to Boston, and his head 
was set up on a pole in 
Plymouth. The war had 
cost the colonists six hundred fighting men and heavy war 
debts. A vast amount of property had been destroyed, but the 
Indian power in New England was broken forever. 

88. Loss of the Massachusetts Charter, 1684. When 
Charles II regained, in 1660, the throne of his father, he was 
beset by the Quakers, Baptists, Episcopalians, and others who 
complained of the intolerance of the Massachusetts authorities. 
It was represented to him that I"2nglish subjects had been 
executed illegally ; that the king's name did not appear in the 
writs ; that Episcopalians were not allowed to appeal to the 




KING PHILIP S WAR 



^ Philip's Indian name was Metacom. He was called Philip by the white 
settlers. The position of the Narragansett tribe under their chief Canonchet 
was in doubt, so the colonists attacked them (December 19, 1675) ^""^ utterly 
defeated them. 



94 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



king's courts ; that money had been coined illegally ; that 
the Navigation Laws had been broken ; and that hundreds 
of other illegal acts had been committed. Charles had no 
love for Massachusetts, and gladly accepted the opportunity 
which was now given him to withdraw the charter. In spite 
of all protests this action was taken in 1684. Before he could 
form a new government for Massachusetts, Charles the Second 
died, and his brother, James the Second, the new king, appointed 
(1686) Sir Edmund Andros ^ as viceroy or governor-general 



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INDIANS ATTACKING A VILLAGE 

over the Dominion of New England, which now included 
New England, New York, and New Jersey. In 1691 a new 
charter was given by the English king, William III, who had 
driven King James from the throne of England. By this 
charter Maine, Massachusetts, and Plymouth became one prov- 
ince. • The religious qualification for voters gave way to a 
property qualification. Liberty of conscience and of worship 

1 The appointment of Andros destroyed at one blow all the political liber- 
ties that the colonists had secured. As viceroy he was an absolute ruler. 
He abolished the General Court and the town meetings and levied taxes 
without reference to the people. The revolution of 1688 drove King James 
the Second from the throne of England and installed William and Mary. The 
fall of Andros immediately followed the news of the revolution in England. 
He was imprisoned and later (1690) sent to England. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



95 



was granted to all except Catholics. ^ The governor was ap- 
pointed by the king and the House of Representatives was 
elected by the colonists. The governor had full veto power 
over any law that might be passed by the colony. This led to 
repeated conflicts between the people and the royal governors, 
and aided in building up the spirit of revolt which resulted 
later in the Revolution. 

89. The Salem Witch- 
craft, 1692. There had 
been recurring witchcraft 
panics in Europe since the 
fifteenth century, and in 
England and Scotland there 
were several in the seven- 
teenth century. In various 
parts of Massachusetts the 
delusion appeared, but the 
most violent outbreak was 
in Salem in 1692. The 
children of a Puritan min- 
ister claimed to be be- 
witched by an old colored 
woman. She confessed, and 

with the children brought accusations against many people in 
the parish. This soon produced a reign of terror throughout the 
colony. No one was safe, and before the panic ended, twenty 
persons had suffered death.'-^ At length a reaction set in, those 
in j)rison were released, and a day of fast was appointed. 

' Some of the most severe penal laws on the pages of history were enacted 
during the first years of the reign of William and Mary. They may be seen 
in detail in Hlackstone's " Commentaries," Book IV, pp. 55-5S. 

- " It seemed as though the bonds of society were dissolving ; nineteen 
persons had been hanged, one had been pressed to death, and eight lay con- 
demned ; a number had fled, but their property had been seized and they were 
beggars ; the prisons were choked, while more than two hundred were accused 
and in momentary fear of arrest; even two dogs had been killed." — Brooks 
Adams, " Emancipation of Massachusetts," p. 227 



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ANDROS S nOMIXIOX OF XKW KXGLANI) 



96 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



In 1620 the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth from the Mayflower. 

In 1628 the Puritans reached Salem and later settled Boston. 

In 1633 Roger Williams was driven from the Puritan colony and 
founded in 1636 the city of Providence. 

In 1643 a confederacy of four colonies (Plymouth, Massachusetts 
Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven) was formed for defense against 
the Indians, the French, and the Dutch. 

In 1656 the Quaker persecution was begun. 

In 1676 the war with King Philip ended in his death and the 
overthrow of the Indian power forever. 

In 1686 Andros was appointed viceroy over the Dominion of 
New England. His power ended in 1690, after James II had lost 
his crown. 

In 1 69 1 a new charter consolidated the colonies of Maine, Massa- 
chusetts Bay, and Plymouth into one colony. 

In 1692 the Salem witchcraft delusion spread terror throughout 
the colony. 

New Hampshire, 1623 

90. Grant to Gorges and Mason. As early as 1603 Captain 
Martin Pring, with two vessels, explored the harbor now called 
Portsmouth and sailed up the Piscataqua River. In 1622 
Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason obtained 
from the Council for New England a grant of land between 
the Merrimack and the Kennebec and extending from the 
Atlantic to the great river of Canada. This ti'act was called 
Laconia " because of the great lakes therein." 

91. Settlement of Dover and Portsmouth. Settlements were 
planted at Dover and at Portsmouth, but little progress was 
made for many years, the chief occupations of the people being 
fishing, hunting, and trading with the Indians. In 1629 Mason 
and Gorges divided their territory. Mason received the portion 
between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers and called it New 
Hampshire, after Hampshire in England, where he had lived 
many years. Gorges took the territory between the Piscataqua 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



97 



and the Kennebec and called it Maine. To his colony Mason 
sent over farming tools and cattle; but he died in 1635, 
and for many years the colonists were neglected. In 1638 
Reverend John Wheelwright, who had been banished from 
Massachusetts for his sympathy with Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, 
settled Exeter. Among the immigrants into this colony were 
large numbers of Irish, who founded Londonderry (i 7 19). Here 
the making of linen was introduced. 

In 1 64 1 New Hampshire was annexed to Massachusetts. 
They were separated and joined a number of times, until in 
1679 New Hampshire became a royal 
province. Henceforth the king ap- 
pointed the governor, and all laws made 
by the colonists were subject to the 
approval of the king. In 1741 New 
Hampshire became once more a sep- 
arate colony. In respect to Maine, 
Gorges had obtained in April, 1639, a 
charter from King Charles which con- 
ferred on him the title of " Lord Pro- 
prietor of the Province or County of 
Maine." This charter gave him almost 
unlimited power and established in the 
colony the Church of England. The province was divided in two 
counties, Agamenticus, or York, being the principal settlement 
of one, and Saco of the other. As early as 1625 a settlement 
had been made at Pemaquid, where a fort was later erected. 
In 1632 Portland was founded. Gorges never visited' America, 
and his province was neglected. After 1652 Maine came 
gradually under the rule of Massachusetts. 

In 1677 Massachusetts bought the claims to Maine from the 
heirs of Gorges for about six thousand dollars. By a new 
charter granted by William and Mary in 1691 Maine was 
united to Massachusetts and was controlled by that state until 
Maine was admitted into the Union in March, 1820. 




98 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

SUMMARY 

In 1603 Martin Pring explored the coast, and in 1622 Gorges and 
Mason were granted the territory between the Merrimack and the 
Kennebec. It was called Laconia. In 1629 it was divided, and Mason 
called his share New Hampshire. Gorges called his territory Maine. 

In 1 641 New Hampshire and Massachusetts were united. 

In 1679 New Hampshire became a royal province. * 

In 1677 Maine passed under the control of Massachusetts and in 
1 69 1 was united to it by a new charter. 

In 17 19 Londonderry was founded by Irish settlers. 

In 1 741 New Hampshire became a separate colony. 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Explain the division of Jersey into West Jersey and East Jersey. 
What was the first permanent settlement in the state .'' 

2. Give an account of the first settlement of the Pilgrims in America, 
touching on location, date, and first agreement as to government. 

3. Distinguish between the Pilgrims and the Puritans. What reasons 
led the Pilgrims to leave Holland? 

4. Mention the names of the first two settlements made by the Massa- 
chusetts Bay colony. What was [a) the character of the settlers ; {b) their 
chief reason for coming to America ? 

5. Give an account of the London Company and the Plymouth 
Company, and of the settlements made in America under the auspices 
of each. 

6. Mention two facts that show the religious intolerance of the 
Massachusetts Bay colony, and state two effects of this, intolerance on 
the settlement of New England. 

7. Explain the New England Confederation, and state its object. 
What colonies were denied admission ? Why ? 

8. Compare the Jamestown colony with the Massachusetts Bay colony 
in respect to {a) character of the setders ; (/') reason for settlement; 
((•) religion. 

9. After its foundadon was New Hampshire always a separate colony? 
10. Explain how Maine for some time belonged to Massachusetts. 

In what year was it finally separated? 



J'KRMANKNT COLONIAL SErrLKMP:NTS 



99 



Cambridfe }|PSTON 

Roiburj Dj^+cjter JC.Cod 
Bi^kield t' 




t>Mt.Il(ilK; J< ' 

Urn 



CoXNIXTICLT, 1634 

92. The Dutch at Hartford. Foundation of Saybrook. While 

the Dutch had been extending; their settlements to the north 
on the Hudson and to the south on the Delaware, they were 
also lookin<^ for territory to the eastward, and in 1633 they 
built a fort where Hartford now stands. In 1634 W'ethersfield, 
the oldest town in Connecticut, was founded by emigrants 
from Watertown, near lk)ston. l\vo years afterwards John 
W'inthrop, Jr., son of the governor, acting as agent of two 
Puritan noblemen who 
had obtained a grant 
of this section, estab- 
lished a fort at the 
mouth of the ri\-er 
to shut off the Dutch 
vessels. He called 
the fort Saybrook in 
honor of his patrons, 
Lord Sav and Lord 

SOUTHERN' NEW EN'GLAXD 

Brooke. 

93. Emigration from Massachusetts. The intensely narrow 
spirit of the Puritan leaders, the unrestrained power of the 
magistrates, and the lack of religious freedom in Massachusetts 
had become distasteful to many of the members. Accordingly, 
in 1636, a large body of colonists set out from Massachusetts. 
With their families and household goods they drove the cattle 
before them and reached the fair and fertile valley of the Con- 
necticut, where the\- built up the towns of Hartford and Windsor. 
Saybrook was later (1644) ixuxhased by the Connecticut colony. 

94. The Fundamental Orders, 1639. A general convention 
of the planters of the three towns of Hartford, W^indsor, and 
Wethersfield was held at Hartford, January 14, 1639, and 
adopted a plan of government called the F"undamental Orders. 
This union of towns formed the Connecticut colony. 




lOO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Fundamental Orders were modeled on the government 
of Massachusetts, except that the right of voting was not 
limited to church members, but could be enjoyed by all 
approved freemen who would take the oath of allegiance. 
The governor was elected by the freemen, but had to be 
a member of one of the Congregational churches. 

The Fundamental Orders were drawn up in a written con- 
stitution, said to be the first popular written constitution in 
history formed by a people through their representatives as a 
basis of government. It is important to note that in this con- 
stitution there was no mention made either of the king of 
England or of the English Parliament. 

95. The New Haven Settlement. In 1638 another colony 
was founded by a Puritan minister of the strictest type, John 
Davenport, assisted by a wealthy London merchant, Theophilus 
Eaton. Their plan was to establish a colony to be governed 
on scriptural principles. The place where they settled was 
called Quinnipiac, and a year later New Haven. The laws of 
Moses were adopted at the outset for the colony. Only mem- 
bers of the Congregational church could be voters or magis- 
trates. Trial by jury was not allowed, and it was decreed that 
" the Word of God shall be the only rule in ordering the 
affairs of government." ^ 

Several towns were established near New Haven, and in 
1643 New Haven, Milford, Guilford, and Stamford were 
united in one political community called the • New Haven 
colony. In 1662 this colony was absorbed by Connecticut 
under a charter from Charles 11.^ 

1 Under these laws there were twelve offenses punishable by death. In 
England there were over one hundred and sixty, and the number increased 
until the criminal-law reform early in the last century. 

2 Two of the judges who had condemned Charles I to death had found 
refuge in New Haven. When Charles II ascended the throne, he ordered 
them to be delivered up to his officers; but they were concealed by the peo- 
ple, and the search for them was fruitless. This incensed Charles and may 
have assisted the Connecticut colony in its successful attempt to absorb the 
New Haven colony. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS loi 

96. The Pequot War, 1637. The colonists in the mean- 
time had been exposed to a serious danger. In the valley of 
the river Thames dwelt a powerful tribe of Indians called the 
Pecfuot, which repeatedly attacked the settlements in the Con- 
necticut valley. In 1637 a company from Connecticut and 
Massachusetts, with friendly Mohican and Narragansett Indians, 
marched to the Pequot fort and attacked it. The Pequot tribe 
was completely destroyed. The other tribes were so terrified by 
this crushing defeat that forty years elapsed before the Indians 
again raised the war cry against the colonists. 

97. The Charter and Governor Andros, 1687. The charter 
of Connecticut had been granted in 1662 by King Charles II. 
In this charter he had given New Haven to Connecticut. 
Although the affairs of the Connecticut colony were prosper- 
ous, its charter was taken away by King James II when he 
reached the throne of England. Andros, the royal governor, 
visited Hartford in October, 1687, to obtain the charter. Ac- 
cording to the tradition, the charter had been placed on the 
table, and while the matter was being discussed, the lights were 
suddenly extinguished. When the candles were relighted, the 
charter could not be found. It had been hidden in the hollow 
trunk of an oak tree, w'hich has since been known as the 
" Charter Oak." Andros, however, overthrew the charter 
government. On his downfall the charter was again produced, 
and under it Connecticut was governed until the Revolution. 

SUMMARY 

In 1633 the Dutch built a fort at Hartford. 

In 1634 VVethersfield, the oldest town in Connecticut, was founded. 

In 1635 Hartford and Windsor were settled. 

In 1637 the colonists of Connecticut and Massachusetts attacked 
and completely destroyed the Pequot tribe. 

In 1638 New Haven was founded by English Puritans. 

In 1639 the Connecticut Constitution, or Fundamental Orders, 
was drawn up at Hartford. 



I02 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Maryland, 1634 

98. The Position of the Catholics in England. After Virginia 
became a royal province, Charles I cut off a territory to. the 
north and gave it in 163 1 to George Calvert, the first Lord 
Baltimore. He was a rich nobleman who had been Secretary 
of State under James I, but had resigned his position in 1625 
on his conversion to the Catholic faith. ^ Knowing the fearful 
hardships of his fellow religionists, he sought to secure a refuge 

in America for 




the Catholics of 
England. Dur- 
ing these years 
the Catholics 
under the Brit- 
ish crown were 
subject to a se- 
ries of the most 
stringent and 
inhuman penal 
laws. According 
to these laws 
any priest discovered celebrating Mass would be fined two hun- 
dred marks ^ and imprisoned for one year, while any person 
discovered hearing Mass would receive the same imprisonment 
with a fine of one hundred marks. Persons who refused to 
attend the services of the Church of England were forbidden 
to hold any office, to bear arms, or to come within ten miles of 
London. They were also forbidden to travel more than five 
miles without a special license or to come into court under a 



THE MARYLAND COLONV 



1 The king continued him as a member of his Privy Council and regranted 
to him the estates which he had forfeited when he became a Catholic. He also 
raised him to the peerage under the title of Baron Baltimore of Baltimore, a 
town in the southern part of Ireland. 

^ The old English mark was worth about three dollars and twenty-three 
cents. 



i'J'lRMANKN'r COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



103 



penalty of five hundred dollars. No Catholic could enter the 
legal profession, the universities, or teach school under penalty 
of perpetual imprisonment, while any Catholic who sent his 
child abroad to be educated lost all his legal rights and real 
estate and was required to pay a fine of five hundred dollars. 
Any priest or Bishop, born under the British crown, who 
returned to Knfrland from abroad and failed to renounce his 






>A^ *</><- ■^ 







1111 SIllLIMlM 1)1 \IVk\LVNU 



religion within three days was guilty of high treason, the 
punishment of which was death. 

99. The Grant of Maryland. To give a place of refuge to 
his persecuted fellow Catholics, George Calvert tried to found 
a settlement in Newfoundland, but it was too cold. Later he 
attempted to settle in X'irginia, but the colonists there drove 
him away on account of his Catholic faith. Still determined to 
carry out his plans, he returned to England and obtained in 
1632 from King Charles' I a grant of that part of Virginia 
lying between the Potomac and the fortieth parallel of north 
latitude. At the request of the king the territory was called 



[04 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Maryland in honor of his queen, Henrietta Maria. ^ With the 
active cooperation of the king, it was hoped to build up at 
once a flourishing colony. 

100. The Maryland Charter. Lord Baltimore was given the 
most extensive rights and privileges ever conferred by a sover- 
eign of England on an English subject. Maryland in fact was 
almost a limited monarchy, with the proprietor as virtually a 

king. He was required to 
pay to the king each year, in 
token of homage, two Indian 
arrows and a fifth of all the 
gold and silver mined. He 
could coin money, grant 
titles of nobility, make war 
and peace, establish courts, 
appoint judges, and pardon 
criminals. He was required, 
however, to summon an 
assembly of the freemen, 
who alone could levy taxes, 
as the charter provided that 
they could never be taxed 
by the king ; all enactments 
needed only his signature, and not that of the king, to have 
the binding effect of law. No law or ordinance, however, could 
be made contrary to the existing laws of England. Baltimore 
gave lands to the tenant on very easy terms, requiring as rent 
only a shilling for fifty acres.^ 

1 Henrietta Maria was a daughter of Henry of Navarre, the first Bourbon 
King of France. She was a CathoHc and sympathized with Calvert's efforts 
to aid her co-religionists in England. 

- The Maryland colonists were able to secure cleared land, because the 
local tribes, on account of the attack of the Susquehannock Indians, were 
about to move to Virginia and were glad to sell their land. The colonists 
secured, therefore, in that mild climate a good crop of corn and wheat the 
first season, and Maryland never suffered from famine as did Virginia and 
Plymouth. 




GEORGE CALVERT, FIRST LORD 
BALTLMORE 



PERMANExNT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 105 

101. Settlement at St. Marys, 1634. Lord Baltimore died 
before the charter was signed, and his son, Cecil Calvert, the 
second Lord Baltimore, carried out his father's plans. With 
two vessels, in charge of Leonard Calvert (brother of the 
proprietor), the colonists, two hundred and twenty in num- 
ber, with two Jesuits (Fathers White and Altham), entered 
Chesapeake Bay and sailed up the Potomac. At St. Clements 
Island they landed and took possession. Father White con- 
secrated the soil, and the first Mass in English America 
was celebrated March 25, 1634. A settlement which they 
named St. Marys was founded two days later. Land was 
purchased from the Indians, and this gained their good will 
at the outset. 1 

102. Claiborne's Rebellion. Virginia claimed that Maryland 
was a part of her territory. On Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, 
Claiborne, a Virginian, had established a post for trading with 
the Indians. He refused to recognize Lord Baltimore's title, and 
quarrels constantly arose between the followers of Claiborne and 
the Maryland colonists. This led to bloodshed, until the king 
of England decided (1638) in favor of the claims of Lord Balti- 
more. Peace now followed for some years. In 1643 civil war 
broke out in England between King Charles I and Parliament, 
King Charles was defeated and executed in 1649, and the 
Puritans in triumph ruled England under Oliver Cromwell. 
To destroy the Catholic colony of Maryland the Puritans under 
Claiborne invaded Maryland, overthrew the government, and 
drove out (1644) Governor Calvert, the representative of Lord 
Baltimore. Two years later Calvert returned, defeated the 
Puritans, and regained the colony. 

103. The Toleration Act, 1649. Lord Baltimore had in- 
structed his brother on setting sail to found the colony "to 
be very careful to preserve unity and peace and to suffer no 
scandal nor offense to be given to any of the Protestants." 

^ Plantations of a thousand acres were granted as manors. The lord of the 
manor had certain rights such as nobles enjoyed in England. 



io6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

That this instruction was followed to the letter is evident 
from the toleration and peace among the colonists. In 1649, 
however, it was deemed best to put the principle of religious 
freedom in the form of law, the first enactment in the land 
that gave equal rights in religion to all Christians. The act 
read as follows : 

And whereas the enforcing of the conscience in matters of religion 
hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous consequence in those 
commonwealths where it hath been practiced, and for the more quiet 

A LAW 

MAR Y L AND 

Conctrning 

RELIGION. 

^L^^adOtf Tiuch IS ia awellgoverned and Chnftiao Commonwealth. Marwrs conctrning Religion and the Honoqr of God ought to be in the firft- 
1 13 f^In pl* "^ t<^ be taken into leriouiconfidcrattoat and endeavoured lobe fettled. Be it therefore Ordatned and Eoadcdby the Right Honounble 
^S 3^[^ Cu^C /LluS Lord B^ron of 5i/«* '■c.abfotiitcLord andPxaprietiry of this Province, with ihcj^dvice aotJ Confcnt of the Upper and 
E3 0^2 l-owerH.iuleofihii General Affemblj', That whatfocvcrpcrfon or perfons within this Province ind ihelflandj thereunto belonging, (hall 
ft^^oSS ftoinhencefonhblarphemeGOD.ihaiiicurfehim; or Diall deny our Saviour JESUS CHRHT tQhethoSonofCod j orftialldeny 
Ihe Holy Trinity,thc Father, Son, & Holy Ghoftior the Godhead of any of the raidThreePerfooi of (hcTrinity,or the Unity of the God head,, 
or fhaUureor utter any reproachful rpccches, words, or lancuage, concerning the Huly Trinity, or any of the fjid three PerfoDS thereof, Qiall be pu- 
niChed with death, and confifcation or forfeiture of ill his or her Lands and Goods to the Lord Propricrary and his Heirs. 

And be it alfo enacted by the Authority, and wvh the advice and alTcnt aforcfaidiThat whailocrer perfbn orperfons IbaU from !ienceforth ufc or utrer 

any rcproachfgl words or fpecohes concerning the bleffcd Virgin MJRr.tht Mother ofour Saviour, or the holy Apoflles or EHoeelifts, or any of them, 

firft Olfcncc forfeit to the faid Lord Proprietary and his Heirs, Lords and Proprietaries of this Province, the Tum of Five pounds 



ch cafe for the firft Olfcncc forfeit to the faid Lord Proprietary and hit Heirs, Lords and Proprietaries of this Province, the fum of Five pounds 

""'"'' ■- ■ ■ ■ 'onthcgoodsandchattelsofeicry fuch pcrfoQ foofFcodiog: butincafcfochofiender or ofenders fliall not then 

rjtisfyingcffuchlorfeitDrc, orihat the famebe not oiherwifc fpeedily &iii6ed, thai then fuch offender or offend- 



ers fhallbepublicklywhipt, and be impnfoncd during the pieafurc of ihc Lord Proprictary.or the Lieutenant or Chief Governor of 
eime being; And that every fucli offender and.offendcrs for every fccond offona (hall forfeit Ten Pounds Sterling, or the value therBof to be levied as afore- 
faiJi or in cafe fuch offender or offenders (hall not then have goods andchattels within this Province fufficicot for that puipofcjlheDto be pubhckly an* 
fcvcrtiv whiptand imprifyned as before is cjtprcfftd . and that every perfon or perfons before mentioned, ofinding herein theihird time, Ihall for fueh* 
third offence, forfeit all his lands and goods, and be forever banifht and expelled out of thu Province. 

FIRST WORDS OF MARYLAND ACT OF 1649 



and peaceable government of this province, and the better to pre- 
serve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within 
this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ,^ shall be in any 
ways troubled, molested, or discountenanced for his or her religion, or 
in the free exercise thereof. 

Under these humane laws the colony greatly flourished. Lord 
Baltimore invited the oppressed of all lands to join his colony, 
and in answer to his invitation, says Bancroft, '' from France 
came Huguenots, from Germany, from Holland, from Sweden, 

1 This provision excluded Jews from the suffrage. It was not until 1S26 
that they were allowed to vote and to hold office. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



107 



from Finland, I believe from Piedmont, the children of mis- 
fortune sought protection under the tolerant scepter of the 
Roman Catholic." ^ 

104. Puritan Rule in Maryland. Another civil war broke out 
in 1655, and the Puritans were successful. The Toleration Act 
was repealed, and Catholics, Quakers, and Baptists were for- 
bidden to practice their religion. Oliver Cromwell, who had 
become Lord Protector of Eng- 
land, restored the province to 
Lord Baltimore and reestab- 
lished the Toleration Act. After 
the death of Cromwell (1658), 
his son succeeded him, but he 
was too weak to rule and after 
a year resigned. Charles II re- 
turned from Holland, where he 
had been in exile, and took the 
throne of England in 1660. He 
died in 1685, and his brother 
James, Duke of York, became 
king, James II ruled only three 
years, when he was overthrown, 
in the English Revolution of 

^ CHARLES 11 

1688, by William of Orange, 

who had married Mary, the daughter of James II. William 

and Mary were crowned king and queen of England in 1689. 

105. Repeal of Toleration Act. William and Mary ignored the 
charter of Maryland and made it a royal province. The pro- 
prietary, the third Lord Baltimore, was stripped of practically 




England came to Maryland in such numbers that they secured 



1 " Calvert deserves to be ranked among the most wise and benevolent 
lawgivers of all ages. He was the first in the history of the Christian world to 
seek for religious security and peace by the practice of justice and not by the 
exercise of power." — Bancroft, "United States" (old ed.), Vol. I, p. 244 



lo8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

control, and the Toleration Act was permanently abolished. 
The persecution of the Catholics at once began. They were 
forbidden to vote or to hold any office ; they were denied the 
privilege of hearing Mass or holding any religious services.^ 
The Church of England was established (1692) by law, and all 
the inhabitants of the colony taxed for its support. This tax 
remained in force until the American Revolution. 

The land taxes of the Catholics were doubled, and they were 
compelled to pay tithes amounting to forty pounds of tobacco 
for the support of the Church of England. 

The capital was removed to its present site and called 
Annapolis, which became a city in 1708. 

In 1 7 14 Benedict Leonard Calvert, the fourth Lord Balti- 
more, renounced his Catholic faith, and to his son, Charles 
Calvert, the fifth Lord Baltimore, a Protestant, the province 
was restored in 171 5. In 1729 the city of Baltimore was 
founded. Maryland remained a proprietary colony until the 
Revolution, 



Lord Baltimore in 1634 founded a colony in the New World for 
the oppressed Catholics of England. 

Claiborne, a Virginian, rebelled against the Baltimore proprietary, 
but the rebellion failed (1638). 

In 1649 the Toleration Act was passed, which granted freedom of 
worship to all Christians. 

In 1655 the Puritans secured the province. It was restored to 
Lord Baltimore by Cromwell. Under William and Mary Lord 
Baltimore lost practically all his rights, and the Toleration Act was 
repealed. 

In 1 7 1 5 the province was restored to the fifth Lord Baltimore. 

In 1729 the city of Baltimore was founded. 

1 " Maryland presented the picture of a province founded for the salvC of 
rehgious opinion by the toil and treasure of Roman Catholics, in which of all 
who called themselves Christian, none save Roman Catholics were denied toler- 
ation." — H.\WKS, " Ecclesiastical History of the United States," Vol. II, p. 1 17 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 



109 



Rhode Lslaxd, 1636 



106. Founding of Providence. We have already seen that 
Roger Williams was compelled, in 1635, to flee from the 
Massachusetts Bay colony. Near Narragansett Bay he began 
to build a home on the Seekonk River. Scarcely had he done 
this when the governor of Plymouth requested him to leave, 
as he was in the territory of that colony. Williams pushed on 

and, reaching a favorable site, cstab- 

lished a settlement which he called 
Providence. 

107. Settlement of Portsmouth 
and Newport. In 1638 friends of 
Anne Hutchinson bought from the 
Narragansett tribe the island of 
Aquidneck, afterwards called Rhode 
Island. Dissensions, however, soon 
arose, and some of the colonists 
moved to the southern end of the 
island and founded a colony which 
was named Newport. The old settle- 
ment was called Portsmouth. These 
different colonies were united after- Kiiom: island 
wards by a charter which Roger 

Williams secured (1643) in England, under the title of "The 
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." In 1662 
King Charles II granted a new charter which founded firmly 
the rights of the colonists. 

108. Religious Toleration. Roger Williams had suffered so 
much for his religious opinions that he established his new 
colony along broad religious lines. The state, he declared, was 
similar to a ship at sea on which there are many passengers. 
As on shipboard every passenger is allowed to use his own 
judgment as to attendance at the ship's prayers, so in the state 
no one should be compelled to attend religious services against 




no ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

his will, but should be obedient to the orders of the majority 
only in civil things. The laws of 1663, therefore, declared 
" that all men professing Christianity . . . who are obedient to 
the civil magistrate, though of different judgments in religious 
affairs, shall be admitted freemen and shall have liberty to 
choose and be chosen officers in the colony." 

From 1 7 19 (when a new arrangement of the laws was made) 
until the Revolution the Catholics, together with the Jews, 
were denied the rights of citizenship. 

SUMMARY 

In 1636 Roger Williams, exiled from Massachusetts, founded the 
city of Providence. A short time afterward Portsmouth and Newport 
were founded by the friends of Anne Hutchinson. Roger Williams 
believed in freedom of worship, and the colony shares with Maryland 
the honor of establishing the principle of religious freedom. 



New Sweden, or Delaware, 1638 

109. The Swedes on the Delaware. In 1623 the Dutch 
West India Company established a trading post on the banks 
of the Delaware, just below the present site of Philadelphia, 
and called it Fort Nassau. About the same time Gustavus 
Adolphus, king of Sweden, formed a company to trade with 
America. In 1638 the Swedes, though they had no title to 
the land, erected Fort Christina — named in honor of the queen 
of Sweden — on the present site of Wilmington, Delaware. 
This territory was claimed by the Dutch, and in 1655 Stuyve- 
sant, governor of New Amsterdam, appeared with an army of 
seven hundred men before the fort, which at once surrendered, 
and New Sweden was at an end. 

110. The English Conquest of Delaware. In 1665 the Eng- 
lish, who had taken New Netherland from the Dutch, captured 
Delaware. In 1682 Penn, who desired to give his colony an 
outlet to the sea, bought Delaware — called also The Three 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS III 

Lower Counties — from the Duke of York. For many years 
there was friction between Pennsylvania and Delaware, but 
after 1703 Delaware was allowed a separate legislature, although 
it had the same governor as Pennsylvania until the Revolution. 

SUMMARY 

Li 1623 the Dutch established a trading post on the Delaware. 

In 1638 the Swedes made the first permanent settlement and 
named it Christina. 

The Dutch captured the colony in 1655 and annexed it to New 
Amsterdam. It was later (1665) taken by the English. 

The C.\kolixas, 1663 

111. Grant of Carolina. South of Virginia, St. Augustine 
was the only thriving settlement on the Atlantic coast. In 1663 
Charles II made a grant to eight noblemen, among them being 
his friends George Monk, Duke of Albemarle, and Edward 
Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. This grant embraced the fertile 
tract of land stretching from Virginia to Florida and extending 
westward to the Pacific. As this land had been called Carolina 
by Ribaut in honor c^f Charles IX of PVance a hundred years 
before, the new proprietors allowed the name to remain in 
honor of the king of England. Under their patent the pro- 
prietors were given most sweeping powers. 

112. Early Settlements. Foundation of Charleston. The 
early settlements which had been made on the Chowan Ri\er 
were formed (1663) into a colony and named Albemarle. 

In 1665 a wealthy planter, Sir John Yeamans, founded a 
colony on the Cape P'ear River. It was called Clarendon, after 
one of the proprietors, but it was soon abandoned. In 1670 
emigrants sent by the proprietors settled near the junction of 
the Ashley and Cooper rivers, but ten years later, in 1680, they 
moved to the tract of land between these rivers and established 
the city of Charleston, 



112 ESSENTIALS Of AMERICAN HISTORY 

113. Locke's Fundamental Constitutions. Among the pro- 
prietors was Ashley, later known by his title of Lord Shaftes- 
bury. His secretary was John Locke, afterwards famous as an 
English philosopher. Locke drew up a constitution for the 
colony which was called the Fundamental Constitutions, or 
Grand Model. This scheme of government hoped to transplant 
to America the aristocratic ideas of Europe. In order to avoid 




K. 








CHARLESTON IN 1673 



"erecting a numerous democracy" it provided for a carefully 
graded society from the higher nobility down to Serfs attached 
to the soil. It decreed that no colonist could vote unless he 
owned fifty or more acres of land, and that no settler could 
leave the land without permission of the proprietor. It pre- 
tended to give religious freedom, while it denied that freedom 
to Catholics and established the Church of England as that of 
the state. 1 The settlers, breathing the free air of the New 

1 By the Act of 1704, to be a member of the assembly one must belong to 
the Church of England. The proprietors ordered the new city founded here 
to be called Charles-Town. 



rilRMANKNT COLONIAL SKTrLKMKN'l'S 113 

World, laughed at the scheme, and the Grand Model was a 
dismal failure. Its only effect was to inspire contempt for all 
forms of government. 

Some years later the colonists obtained the right to make 
their own laws, while the jiroprietors were to receive an annual 
rent of a halfpenny per acre. 

As slaves were, especially valuable for the cultivation of rice 
and indigo,^ the two leading products of southern Carolina, the 
slave trade in this part of the colony became very active. Large 
plantations were developed in the fertile rice lands. This 
section became in consequence very prosperous, and Charleston 
was the seat of many wealthy homes. In northern Carolina the 
land was not adapted to rice and there were few large plan- 
tations. Small farms were common with less w^ealth and 
prosperity, h'rom the pine forests of this section large quan- 
tities of turpentine and pitch were secured. 

The principal settlers in the Carolinas were English, French, 
Irish, Scotch, and Germans. Under Baron de (iraffenried the 
Germans settled Newbern. 

After Charleston was founded, a separate governor generally 
ruled the northern and southern parts of Carolina. Troubles 
constantly arose, as the colonists rebelled against the rule of the 
proprietors and their governors. Mnally, in 1729, Carolina 
came under the control of the king, and being divided into 
North and South Carolina, the two parts became separate 
royal colonies, subject to a royal governor, appointed by the 
king of England. 



In 1663 King Charles II granted to a body of noblemen the tract 
of land named Carolina. The constitution framed for the colony and 
called the Grand Model was written by Locke, the philosopher. 
The plan was a failure. In 1729 North and South Carolina were 
separated and became royal colonies. 

^ South Carolina has continued to be a great rice center. Indigo, however, 
is no longer cultivated. 



114 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Pennsylvania, i68i 

114. The Grant to Penn. One of the foremost men among 
the Quakers in England was Wilham Penn, who had for some 
years been keenly interested in colonization in America.^ His 
father had been a distinguished admiral, to whom King Charles 
owed about eighty thousand dollars for his services to his country. 
After his father's death Penn asked from the king the grant 

of a tract of land 
in America to 
balance the debt. 
The king gladly 
consented to free 
himself in this 
easy manner, and 
granted, in i68i, 
a charter for a 
tract forty-eight 
thousand square 
miles in extent, 
fronting on the 
Delaware River 
and practically 
comprising the 
present state of Pennsylvania. To this province the name 
Pennsylvania (Penn's woods), after Admiral Penn, was given. 
Penn desired to establish a free commonwealth where not 
only the persecuted Quakers^ but other colonists might enjoy 
freedom, at the same time rendering strict obedience to the 
civil authorities. " Liberty without obedience," declared Penn, 
" is confusion, and obedience without liberty is slavery." 

1 While a student at Oxford, Penn, being a Quaker, had refused to attend 
the rehgious services of the University. In consequence he was expelled. 

'- The movement of the Quakers at this time is accounted for by the 
stringent laws which Parliament passed in the early years of the reign of 
Charles II to enforce uniformity in attendance at the Church of England. 




THE PENNSYLVANIA COLONY 



I'KRMANENT COLONIAL SETTLP:MENTS 1 15 

115. Penn's Frame of Government. In 168 1 l^enn drew ujd 
a "Frame of Government" for his province. Although he 
was the owner of all the land, he declared that the govern- 
ment should be for the benefit of all the people. He gave 
the colonists, therefore, very large powers of self-government 
through a Council and an Assembly of the freemen. Each 
settler obtained one hundred acres of land for fifty dollars. It 
was provided that no person believing in one God should be 
molested on account of religion, but only those who were Chris- 
tians could take part in the government. The test oaths against 
their religion made it impossible for Catholics to take part in 
the government. Complete religious liberty never existed in 
colonial Pennsylvania. 

It also provided that the Indians should be treated with justice 
and kindness, that every child should be taught a trade, and that 
criminals in jails should be employed in some useful occupation. 
He abolished the death penalty except for murder and treason. 

In October, 168 1, three shiploads of Quakers left England, 
and in 1682 Penn himself sailed with a hundred emigrants. 
He landed at Newcastle, in the territory which is now Dela- 
ware, but which had been purchased by him from the Duke 
of York in 1681. He was cordially welcomed by the Swedes 
and Dutch who had settled there. 

116. Philadelphia founded. Treaty with the Indians. A city 
was marked out on the Schuylkill, in 1682, to which was given 
the name Philadelphia, a Greek word which means " brotherly 
love." Penn's high character and the rather liberal laws regard- 
ing religion attracted settlers in great numbers from various 
countries of Europe. Among the settlers were Welsh, Swedes, 
Germans, and Irish.^ 

1 The Welsh settled west of Philadelphia, and many names, like IJryn Mawr, 
Merion, and Radnor, show the so-called Welsh Tract. The Germans were 
largely Mennonites from the Rhine country. About 1683 Pastorius founded 
Germantown. Here, in 16S8, was drawn up what is claimed to be the first 
public protest against slavery in the present limits of the United States. 
The Irish went farther westward beyond the Welsh and German settlements. 



i6 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Soon after his arrival, Penn, mindful of his Quaker beliefs, 
made a visit to the Indian wigwams to secure the good will 
of the red men. In 1682 a treaty of peace was made with the 
Delaware Indians. Stand- 
ing under a wide-spreading 
elm, Penn and the Indians 
clasped hands and made 
solemn promises of friend- 
ship. F'or sixty years, while 
the Quakers had control of 
Pennsylvania, this peace re- 
mained unbroken, and Penn 
was always loved and trusted 
by the red men. The Indian 
record of this treaty is a 
belt of wampum, which may 
be seen to this day in Phila- 
delphia. So rapidly did the 
colony grow that three years 
after Penn's arrival it con- 
tained almost eight thousand 
inhabitants, and Philadel- 
phia was the largest city in 
the colonies at the outbreak of the Revolution. Penn made two 
visits to his colony, leaving for the last time in 1701. Although 
troubles constantly arose between the colonists and the gov- 
ernors, the colony prospered. 




penn's meeting with the INDIANS 



SUMMARY 

The colony of Pennsylvania was granted to William Penn, a Quaker, 
by Charles II, king of England.^ In 1681 the first colonists arrived, 
and Philadelphia was founded in 1682. A treaty was made with the 
Indians and faithfully kept while the Quakers were in power. 

1 The boundary line of Pennsylvania and Maryland became the famous 
" Mason and Dixon's line." It was so called from its surveyors. 



PERMANENT COLONLVL SETTLEMENTS 



117 



Georgia, 1733 



117. The Grant to Oglethorpe. General James Oglethorpe, 
an English soldier, obtained from George II a grant of land 
between the Savannah and the Altamaha rivers to establish a 
home for the poor debtors of England. Under the English law, 
for a debt of even one shilling a man could be imprisoned 
until the debt was paid, and the jails were filled with the 
unfortunates who had 



I U G I N I A 



^^^ 



_<■ X O Pv T^H SC%f 

~^t^*^ gT'a R O L\I n\a<^ 

^^ffT^^— Layettcville.U,,, ^^^ 




not the means to 
jxiv. Thousands died 
before relief came. 

Oglethorpe formed 
a company and made 
arrangements to pay 
these debts, to free 
the debtors, and to 
send them to Amer- 
ica. He was assisted 
by hundreds of chari- 
table people in Eng- 
land and by a grant of 
fifty thousand dollars 
from Parliament. 

118. Settlement of Savannah, 1733. In November, 1732, 
Oglethorpe sailed with one hundred and twenty persons to 
the Savannah River, where he laid the foundation of a town, 
which he named Savannah. A treaty was made with the 
Indians, the land ])urchased from them, and their good will 
secured. The laws of the colony provided that the trustees 
should make all the laws and should rule the colony for 
twenty-one years, at the end of which time the king should 
decree what form of government it w-as to receive. The laws 
forbade negro slavery and the importation of spirituous liquors. 
They permitted each colonist to rent fifty acres of land. 



THE SOUTHERN- COLONIES 



Ii8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

No one, however, could secure more than five hundred acres of 
land. Catholics were forbidden to settle there, and the Church 
of England was established, the people being taxed to support it. 

119. War with Spain. -A second reason for the settlement 
of Georgia was the desire to check any northward movement 
of the Spaniards from Florida. In 1739 war was declared 
between England and Spain, and Oglethorpe led an expedition 
into Florida against the Spaniards, but he was defeated. The 
Spaniards then took the offensive and, entering Georgia, at- 
tacked Oglethorpe at Frederica in 1742, but they were repulsed. 

Oglethorpe led another invasion of Florida, but it was without 
important results. While the English military movements were 
not successful, they had at least established Georgia securely as 
an English colony, and the Spaniards were never able to push 
their boundary northward beyond Florida. 

Under Oglethorpe's laws Georgia made slow progress. 
Discontent was apparent everywhere, as the land laws were 
unsatisfactory. In 1752 the trustees surrendered the colony 
to the crown and it became a royal colony. Georgia was the 
last colony planted by England in the present limits of the 
United States. 

SUMMARY 

In 1733 Georgia was founded by Oglethorpe, partly as a refuge 
for the debtors in English prisons and partly as a check to the Span- 
ish in Florida. Catholics were forbidden to enter the colony. 

Savannah, the first settlement, was made in 1733. 

In 1752 the trustees surrendered the colony and it became a royal 
colony. It was the last colony founded by the English in the present 
limits of the United States. 
Dates to be re?nembered : 

1607. Founding of Jamestown, first permanent English settlement 
in America. 

1 619. First Representative Assembly in America. Introduction 
of negro slavery into English America. 

1620. Foundation of the Plymouth colony. 



PERMANENT COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS 119 

Important dates for reference : 

1 630. The Massachusetts Bay Company founds a colony at Boston. 

1634. St. Marys is settled by Lord Baltimore. 

1636. Connecticut is settled by emigrants from Massachusetts. 
Roger Williams founds Rhode Island. 

1638. New Haven colony founded by Puritans from England. 

1643. The New England Confederation. 

1649. The Maryland Toleration Act. 

1664. English conquest of New Netherland. 

1670. Charleston is founded by the proprietors of the Carolinas. 

1 68 1. Settlement of Pennsylvania by the Quakers. 

1688. The Revolution in England. 

1733. Georgia is founded by Oglethorpe. 

Persons to knoiu about : 

John Smith, Myles Standish, Roger Williams, Hudson, Stuyvesant, 
George Calvert (Lord Baltimore), Penn, Bacon, Dongan, Leisler, 
Andros, King Philip, Massasoit, Powhatan, Oglethorpe. 

Map work : 

On a map show in different colors, or by different markings, 
Spanish, French, Dutch, Swedish, and English spheres of influence 
in America. 

Locate Jamestown, Chesapeake Bay, Scrooby, Plymouth (Eng- 
land), Amsterdam (Holland), Cape Cod, Plymouth in New England, 
Providence, Boston, Hudson River, Fort Orange (Albany), New 
Amsterdam, St. Marys, Baltimore, Charleston, Savannah, Philadel- 
phia, Hartford. 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Show by a map the territory in what is now the United States claimed 
in 1 640 by each of the following nations : English, French, Spanish, 
Dutch. Swedish. 

2. State how each of the following aided in the settlement of the Amer- 
ican colonies: (^/)John Winthrop ; (^) Lord Baldmore ; (f) William Penn; 
{(i) James Oglethorpe. 

3. Name {a) the charter colonies ; (/;) the proprietary colonies ; (c) the 
royal colonies. 



I20 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAxN HISTORY 

4. Explain the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. Why are they so 
important ? 

5. Account for the following names : Florida, Pennsylvania, Baltimore, 
Virginia, Carolina. 

6. Give an account of the settlement of Maryland, touching on 
(a) name and purpose of its founder ; {d) the Toleration Act ; (c) Claiborne's 
Rebellion. 

7. Explain the difference between the government of \'irginia and that 
of Maryland. 

8. State in regai-d to the Quakers (a) why they were persecuted ; 
((^) what colony they founded. 

9. State with reference to the setdement of Pennsylvania (a) the pur- 
pose of its founder ; (i) kind of government established ; (c) results of the 
" great treaty." 

10. Explain how negro slavery began in the colonies. Why did it 
increase more rapidly in the South than in the North.'' 

READINGS 

Histories. Andrews, C. M., Colonial Self-Govertvment. Eggle.ston, 
Edward, Beginners of a Nation. Fiske, Old Virginia and her Neighbors. 
Beginnings of New England. Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. 
Greene, E. B., Provincial America. Tyler, L. G., England in America. 

Sources. Hart, Contemporaries., Vol. I, p. 145 (The Condition of the 
English in 1577); p. 209 (Founding of Virginia, by Captain John Smith); 
p. 218 (First Representative Assembly in America); p. 252 (First Impres- 
sions of Maryland, by Father White); p. 501 (A Story of Indian Captivity); 
p. 529 (The Founding of New Amsterdam). Muzzey, Readings in Amer- 
ican History, p. 46 (The Revolution of 1689); p. 50 (Early New York, 
fesuit Relations) \ p. 72 (The First Navigation Act, 1660). 

Fiction. Barr, A. E., The Bow of Orange Ribbon (a story of early 
Dutch New York). Butterworth, H., WatnpwJt Belt (a fascinating 
tale of Penn and the Indians). Cooke, J. E., My Lady Pocahontas (a tale 
of early Jamestown days in Virginia). Hemans, F., Laiiding of the Pil- 
grims (poem). Longfellow, H. W., Courtship of Miles Standish (poem). 
MuNROE, Kirk, Flamingo Feather {a story of the early Florida settlements 
and the Seminole Indians). O'Reilly, J. B., The Pilgrijn Fathers (poem). 
Tappan, E. M., Letter's of Colonial Children (imaginary letters describing 
life in the early days). 



CHAPTER VI 
FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 

120. The Missionaries. Wc have already seen (see sect, ly) 
how the French estabhshcd a settlement on the St. Lawrence 
in 1608 and called it Quebec. It was a point of the greatest 
military value, on the highway to the Great Lakes and the 
valley of the Mississippi. Champlain, recognizing the impor- 
tance of gaining the sympathy of the Indians, invited the F"ran- 
ciscans from France to establish missions among the tribes. 
One of these Franciscans, Father Le Caron, penetrated as far 
as Lake Huron,^ where he established a mission in 1615.''^ 

In 1625 the Jesuits came to New France. They traversed 
the forest and established missions during the next fifty years 
at Sault Ste. Marie, Green Bay, St. Ignace, Kaskaskia, and 
many other places.'^ Father Menard, in 1661, explored the 
southern shore of Lake Superior. He lost his life in attempt- 
ing to visit some Christian Hurons. Father Allouez^ at once 
took up the work and established a mission at La Pointe, on 
one of the Apostle Islands, near the present site of Ashland, 
Wisconsin. He was later joined by Father Dablon, superior of 

1 Lake Huron and Lake Ontario were discovered in 1615. Lake Superior in 
1616. and Lake Michigan in 1634. Lake Erie was probably discovered in 1640. 

- Jean Nicolet, a brave Norman, who came to New France in 1618, explored 
the region around Lake Huron and Lake Michigan from 1634 to 1640. 

3 " Thus did the religious zeal of the French," says Bancroft, " bear the 
cross to the banks of the St. Mary and the confines of Lake Superior and look 
wistfully toward the homes of the Sioux in the valley of the Mississippi, five 
years before the New ?:ngland Eliot had addressed a tribe of Indians that 
dwelt within six miles of Boston Harbor." 

* In 1899 the State Historical Society of Wisconsin erected a tablet at 
I)e Pere to the memory of Father Allouez, the founder of Wisconsin's first 
Indian missions. The place was originally named Rapides des P^res (Rapids 
of the Fathers). 

121 



122 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Canadian missions, and by the great missionary whose 
name will forever adorn the pages of our history — Father 
James Marquette. 

121. Jolliet and Marquette explore the Mississippi, 1673. 
Frontenac, the governor of New France, desired to have the 
Mississippi River explored and to find perhaps in this river the 
route to the South Sea. He chose Louis Jolliet,^ a Montreal 
trader, for the enterprise. In May, 1673, Jolliet, with Father 
Marquette (the Jesuit missionary) and five companions, left 
St, Ignace Mission in north Michigan to seek a great river to 
the west, of which they had heard many wonderful stories from 
the Indians. Dragging their light canoes up the rapids of the 
Fox River, they crossed Lake Winnebago and soon discovered 
the Wisconsin River, Drifting down its beautiful waters, on 
June 17, 1673, a month after their departure, at the spot where 
Prairie du Chien now stands, they entered the great river called 
by the Indians Mississippi, but named Conception by Father 
Marquette. They sailed the majestic river, passed the Ohio, 
and on the way told the native tribes the truths of Christianity. 
One month after entering the Mississippi they reached the spot 
where, according to tradition, De Soto had died one hundred 
and thirty-one years before. Fearing to fall into the hands of the 
Spaniards or of hostile Indians, they set out on the return journey. 
They now felt assured that the Mississippi River emptied into 
the Gulf of Mexico and did not wish to run the risk of having 
the fruits of their expedition lost through their death or capture. 

Ascending the Illinois River, Father Marquette ministered to 
the Kaskaskias. Thence pushing onward, they entered Lake 
Michigan and reached Green Bay in September, having traveled 
no less than two thousand five hundred miles in their light canoes ,2 

1 The explorer himself wrote his name Jolliet. The city named in his honor 
is spelled Joliet. 

2 The return route of Jolliet and Father Marquette was up the Illinois 
River to the Des Plaines. Paddling up this stream they came to a portage, 
about a mile and a half in width, which led them to Lake Michigan. This 
portage is the site of the present city of Chicago. It is interesting to note 



FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 123 

JoUiet and a few companions returned to Montreal. ^ One 
year later Father Marquette set out again to establish a mission 
among the Kaskaskias. Scarcely had he reached their village 
when he fell ill, and desiring to pass his last hours among his 
faithful companions at St. Ignace, he started homeward. But 
the days of the saintly explorer and missionary were numbered. 




JOLLll'.T AM) .MARQUETTE OX THE MISSISSH'l'I 

While his companions were trying to hurry him upon his 
journey, he died on the shore of Lake Michigan- on the 19th 
of May, 1675, thanking God that he was permitted to die in 
the wilderness, a member of the Jesuit Order, 

that Father Marquette wrote : " It would only be necessary to make a canal 
by cutting through but half a league of prairie to pass from the foot of the Lake 
of Illinois (Michigan) to the River St. Louis (Des Plaines)." Two hundred and 
twenty-five years later this canal, called the Chicago Drainage Canal, was dug. 

1 Jolliet's canoe was upset in the Lachine Rapids, and he barely escaped 
with his life. All his papers and maps describing his great journey were lost, 
but Father Marquette wrote a narrative which appeared in Paris in 1681. 

2 His death occurred near the present site of Ludington. Later his body 
was tran.sferred to the mission of .St. Ignace, where a monument marks his 
last resting place. A statue of Father Marquette has been placed in the 
Capitol at Washington by the state of Wisconsin. 



124 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

122. Frontenac's Plans. In 1673 the new governor of 
Canada, Count de Frontenac, took decisive steps to control 
for France the fur trade of the Great Lakes and the West. 
With a large force of French and Indians he went to the out- 
let of Lake Ontario on the site of the present city of Kingston, 
where he erected a fort, which he called Fort Frontenac. Here 
he met a delegation of sixty Iroquois chiefs, whom he had in- 
vited to make a treaty. A great feast was spread and the treaty 
was made. The tireless Frontenac now set on foot plans to con- 
trol Lake Erie, and selected as the leader of the expedition 
La Salle, who was commander of Fort Frontenac. 

123. La Salle journeys Westward. In 1679 La Salle 
erected a blockhouse near the mouth of the Niagara River. 
Dragging tools, ropes, and canoes up the steep bank around 
the falls, he built on Lake Erie a vessel which he named the 
Griffin} It was La Salle's purpose not only to secure the fur 
trade but also to explore the Great Lakes and the Mississippi 
River.2 La Salle sailed through Lakes Erie, Huron, and 
Michigan and touched at St. Ignace. Passing on to Green 
Bay, he stocked the Griffin with furs and despatched the vessel 
back to Fort Frontenac for provisions. La Salle sent one of 
his companions, Accau, with Father Hennepin, a Franciscan, 
to explore the upper Mississippi River. In a few weeks they 
fell into the hands of the Sioux Indians, who led them captive 
to the site of the present city of St. Paul.^ Father Hennepin 
named the raging cascade here Falls of St. Anthony in honor of 
the great saint of his Order ; "* here, about one hundred and sixty 

1 Amid the booming of cannon and the singing of the Te Deum by the 
Franciscans the first ship to sail the Great Lakes rode proudly upon the waters 
of Lake Erie. 

- The English founded, in 1670, the Hudson Bay Company, which gradually 
established posts throughout the wilderness of the North. This action was the 
first step in heading off the growing power of New France. 

3 Father Galtier here erected (1841) a little chapel dedicated to St. Paul. 
It was from this chapel that the city of St. Paul received its name. 

* St. Anthony of Padua. It was named. Father Hennepin says, " in gratitude for 
the favors done me by the Almighty through the intercession of that great saint." 



FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 



125 



years later, the great cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis arose. 
P"ather Hennepin and his companions were soon rescued by 




ENGLISH POSSESSK 

> AND THE 

rRENCII EXPLORATIONS 
AXD SETTLEMENTS 

IN THE WEST 



Route of 
FatUr Harijutlle and JoOitt 

Route af 

Father Ucmvitin 



SCALE OF MILE8 
100 SOO 



the fur trader Du Lhut (or Duluth as the name is now spelled) 
and finally reached Montreal in safety. 

La Salle, with fourteen men in four canoes, sailed southward 
and built a fort at the mouth of the St. Joseph River, which 
he called Fort Miami. Ascending the St. Joseph River to the 



126 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

portage at South Bend,i he crossed to the Kankakee, drifted 
down this stream, and built a fort, which he called Crevecoeur.^ 
Here he waited for tidings from the Griffin, but they never 
came.^ He determined, therefore, to leave Crevecoeur in charge 
of his friend, Henri de Tonty, and to return to Fort Frontenac, 
a thousand miles away. In the midst of winter, with only five 
companions, he turned backward on his fearful journey. He 
reached the fort in May, gathered new supplies, and returned 
with twenty-five companions. He found Fort Crevecoeur in 
ruins and no trace of Tonty and his companions. After search- 
ing in vain for his friend, he sailed down the river to the mouth 
of the Illinois, and before him spread the great Mississippi, 
which Jolliet and Marquette had explored seven years before. 

He left a letter tied to a tree and hoped that Tonty might 
find it. Then returning to Fort Miami, he was compelled to 
spend the winter there. During this time he made friends 
among the Indian tribes. In May he returned to St. Ignace, 
where, to his inexpressible delight, he met Tonty. 

124. Further Explorations of La Salle, 1682. His Death. 
La Salle was not yet satisfied. He pushed on to Montreal, 
secured new supplies, and returned to Fort Miami. With fifty- 
four companions he again sailed down the Illinois. Entering 
the Mississippi, he passed the mouths of the Missouri and the 
Red River, and in April, 1682, reached the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi. Here he erected a cross and a column to which he 
fastened a metal plate bearing the arms of France and the 
date. Claiming all the land drained by the river for the king 

1 Near this place was founded, in 1842, the University of Notre Dame by the 
Fathers of the Holy Cross. Here in the early days was a center of missionary 
work among the Potawatami and the Miami tribes of Indians. 

2 Crevecmcr (krave kerr') means "heartbreak" in French, but this fort was 
probably so named in honor of Fort Crevecoeur in the Netherlands, that had 
been captured by the king of France eight years before. 

^ The Griffin was lost with all its crew and its valuable cargo of furs. As if 
to add to La Salle's misfortunes, a vessel with supplies for him was wrecked 
with total loss in the lower St. Lawrence River. La Salle, alone of his country- 
men, realized the wonderful agricultural possibilities of the Mississippi Valley. 







I.A SALLK Al- THK MOUTH UK THE MISSISSIPJ'I 



127 



128 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

of France, he named this vast region Louisiana in honor of his 
sovereign, Louis XIV. " New France was now founded with 
its two heads, one in the canebrakes of Louisiana and the other 
in the snows of Canada," says Parkman (" La Salle," p. 287). 

La Salle soon sailed for France to tell the king of the won- 
derful country he had explored and the necessity of colonizing 
it. The king agreed with him, and La Salle returned in 1684 
with an expedition of four ships. Li passing he missed the 
mouths of the Mississippi and landed at Matagorda Bay in 
Texas, four hundred miles west of that river. For two years 
he searched in vain for the Mississippi and was murdered by 
some of his followers, March 19, 1687, while trying to go 
overland to Canada. Most of the colony perished later at the 
hands of the Indians. 

125. Founding of Mobile and New Orleans. In 1699 Iber- 
ville, ^ who had obtained permission from the king of France 
to found a city at the mouth of the Mississippi, built a fort at 
Biloxi. He entered the Mississippi and explored its course 
for several days. In 1702 Mobile was founded. In 1718 
Bienville, a brother of Iberville, founded the city of New 
Orleans. The building of this city controlled for France the 
great Mississippi River system.^ 

126. Settlement of Duluth and Detroit. In the meantime 
the French had been active in the North. Du Lhut founded 
a post which has since been named Duluth in his honor. 
In 1 70 1 Cadillac built a fort on the strait which connects 
Lake Erie with Lake Huron and called it Detroit, or the 
" Strait," as the word means in French. Inside the fort houses 
were built. The Indians were invited to live near by, that the 

1 Charles le Moyne, a captain of militia of Quebec, had two sons, — Pierre le 
Moyne, commonly known as Iberville, and Jean Baptiste le Moyne, who was 
called Bienville. Iberville had fought with great ability against the English. 

- In 1727 there was founded by the Ursuline Nuns in New Orleans the 
first school under the direction of Sisters in the United States. The Ursuline 
Academy is probably the oldest female school in the present limits of the 
United States. 



FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 129 

fort might become a center of fur trade. A year later Vincennes 
was founded. The French pushed beyond the Mississippi. In 
1743 Verendrye went as far westward as the present state of 
Montana and, first of white men, saw the towering snow-capped 
peaks of the Rocky Mountains. It was, however, the estabHsh- 
ment of mihtary posts throughout this vast territory of the 
Mississippi basin that eventually brought on a life and death 
struggle between the English and the French. 

127. French and English Colonization. In this struggle the 
two systems of colonial government — the French and the 
English — would be brought to a test. In the English colonies 
the settlers were increasing by thousands yearly. They brought 
from England with them their families, took homesteads, and 
to a certain extent enjoyed self-government through their rep- 
resentative colonial assemblies. As few measures were offered 
to England for the approval of the king, the colonists became 
more and more self-reliant and independent. Without realizing 
it they were preparing the way for the American Revolution. 

In New France the king of France was the sole master. 
Through the governors and other officers appointed by him 
he ruled with absolute power, and the French colonists never 
secured even to the smallest degree a share in the government 
of New France. In the vast area from the mouth of the 
St. Lawrence to the delta of the Mississippi there were only 
twelve thousand Frenchmen. Few families had come from 
France to make their homes in the New World. 'The French 
settlements outside the missions were merely forts and trading 
posts, and the inhabitants for the most part were soldiers and 
fur-traders. In the next chapter we shall see how the widely 
scattered French forces were brought face to face, with fatal 
results in war, with the rapidly growing permanent settlements 
of the English colonies. In these colonies there were at this 
time almost two hundred thousand colonists, settled in a com- 
pact territory sixteen times as many as in the entire widespread 
area of New France. 



I30 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

SUMMARY 

In 1673 Jolliet and Father Marquette explored the Mississippi, 
proving that it emptied into the Gulf of Mexico. 

La Salle launched the first vessel on the Great Lakes in 1679. 

La Salle reached the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682 and claimed 
its entire basin for France. He named it Louisiana. 

Iberville founded Mobile in 1702. 

In 1 7 1 8 New Orleans was founded by Bienville, a brother of Iberville. 

Persons to knoiv about : 

Jolliet, Marquette, La Salle, Hennepin, Frontenac, Bienville, Cadillac. 
Map work : 

Trace the route of La Salle from Montreal to the mouth of the 
Mississippi River. Find on the map Mackinac, Green Bay, Prairie 
du Chien, Des Plaines River, St. Paul, Duluth, New Orleans. 

READINGS 

Histories. Baldwin, J., The Disco^icry of the Old Northwest. Camp- 
bell, T. J., Pioneer Priests, Vol. Ill, p. 165. Eggleston, Edward, Our 
First Century. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World. La Salle 
and the Discovery of the Great West. Thwaites, R. G., Father Marquette. 

Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. II, p. 316 (Danger to English 
from French Mississippi Settlements); p. 320 (The Fur Trade). 

Fiction. Catherwood, M. H., The Story of Tonty. Romance of 
Bollard (interesting tales of La Salle and French Canada). 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

c 

1. Cartier explored the St. Lawrence in 1534, but the first permanent 
French settlement was not made until 1608. Mention the circumstances 
that delayed French settlement in North America. 

2. What was the importance of La Salle's expedition to the mouth of 
the Mississippi ? Describe briefly the ceremony of taking possession of the 
Louisiana country. 

3. What important fact was established by the expedition of Jolliet 
and Marquette? 

4. What famous falls were discovered by Father Hennepin ? Why was 
the city of St. Paul so named ? 

5. Who explored the Far West? Where were missions established? 



CHAPTER VII 

" The firing of a gun in the backwoods of North America brought on a 
contlict which drenched Kuropc in blood."' — Macaulay 

THE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 
IN AMERICA 

128. King William's War,i 1689-1697. It will be remem- 
bered (see sect. 62) that in the charters the grants of most of 
the colonies stretched from sea to sea. The French had now 
taken possession of the Mississippi Valley, a territory which was 
claimed by the English. There could be only one result from 
disputes about this territory, — war, which was declared in 1689. 
Another cause for war was the fact that James II, who had fled 
from England, had taken refuge in France, and the king of France 
was striving to replace him on the throne. Count Frontenac was 
sent to America to look after the French interests. He at once 
planned to capture New York. The Iroquois were bitter foes of the 
French, while the Algonquin were their stanch friends. On his 
arrival Frontenac learned that the Iroquois had invaded Canada, 
besieged Montreal, and had burned captives at the stake with 
fiendish cruelty. It w^as now the turn of the French and their 
Indian allies. In February, 1690, they swept southward, surprised 

1 So called from William III, who at that time sat on the throne of 
I'"ngland. As stadholder of Holland, William had fought Louis XIV of P' ranee. 
Louis took up the cause of James 11, the deposed king of England. As 
soon as William secured the crown of E'ngland he sought to curb the rising 
power of P'rance by forming an alliance of England, Holland, Spain, and the 
Cicrman Empire and declaring war on France. This war was waged largely 
in the Netherlands, on the seas, and in North America. After about seven 
years it ended in the Peace of Ryswick, so called from a town in Holland. Both 
sides gave up whatever territory they had gained. William was acknowledged 
as king of England. Spain now left the alliance with England and soon 
joined with France. 

131 



132 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



and captured Schenectady, burned the town, and massacred 
the inhabitants.^ Now followed a period of the most horrible 
warfare. Salmon Falls in New Hampshire, York and Fort Loyal 
(now Portland) in Maine, Groton and Haverhill in Massachusetts 
were attacked and many of the inhabitants massacred. In 1690 
New England organized an expedition of two thousand militia 



^^W^^y'^r'f "' ^ f' T 



w^^ 




COLONISTS CAI'TURED BY THE INDIANS 



under Sir William Phipps, which captured Port Royal, Acadia, 
but it was recaptured the following year by the French. The 
war closed in 1697 by the treaty of Ryswick... Neither side 
had gained or lost any valuable territory. 

129. Queen Anne's War, or the War of the Spanish Succes- 
sion,'-^ 1702-1713. King William died in 1702, and Anne, his 

1 In this year (1690) the first colonial congress ever held in America met 
in New York City under Leisler to arrange an expedition against the French 
in Canada. This congress is important, as it marked the beginning of colonial 
cooperation (see sect. 75). 

2 This war was so called because the European nations objected to the 
attempt of Louis XIV to place his grandson on the throne of Spain, which was 
vacant. England, Holland, Spain, and the German States were allied against 
Louis, who was defeated and signed a peace treaty at Utrecht in 17 13. 



WARS OF THE KXGLISII AND THE FRENCH 133 




English 
French 

lliiiilliillll Spanish 



NORTH A.MKKICA AT THE IJEGINM.NC; OF THE WARS OE THE FRENCH 
AND ENGLISH IN NORTH AMERICA 



sister-in-law, became queen of rLngland.! War was renewed 
between France and England. The Indians spread death and 
destruction on all sides. They attacked Deerfield in 1704 and 
1 [averliill in 170S. putting to death the inhabitants. Two years 

^ King William had married Mary, the daughter of James II. On the death 
of King William, Anne, who was the second daughter of James II, succeeded 
to the throne. 



134 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 




later an expedition from Boston captured Port Royal (which 
had been returned to the French at the close of King William's 
War) and changed its name to Annapolis in honor of the queen. 
A force was led in 171 1 against Quebec. Many of the ships 
were wrecked in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the expedition 
returned an utter failure. The war 
ended in 171 3. In the treaty of 
peace signed at Utrecht (1713) the 
French gave up Acadia, which 
passed for good to the English. 
They named it Nova Scotia. This 
cession was the first permanent step 
toward the final conquest of New 
France. To the English were ceded 
also Newfoundland and the Hud- 
son Bay territory. The French also 
agreed that all the Indians of the 
Iroquois confederation should be con- 
sidered subjects of Great Britain .1 
130. King George's War, or the War of the Austrian Succes- 
sion,^ 1744-1748. Peace lasted for thirty years, when war was 
again declared, George II was now king of England. The 
principal point of attack was Louisburg, a strong fortress on 
the southeast coast of Cape Breton Island. A union of forces 
from New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massa- 
chusetts, to the number of four thousand, sailed against this 
massive granite fortification. After a siege of a few weeks it 

1 This provision gave England an opportunity later to claim the entire 
country over which the Iroquois roamed as English territory. 

In 1744, at a great council held at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, the Iroquois 
made a grant to the English of all the Ohio valley north of the Ohio River. 

2 In 1740 Emperor Charles VI of Austria died and his daughter, Maria 
Theresa, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, laid claim to her father's domains. 
Holland, Hanover, and England were united on the side of Maria Theresa. 
France, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Spain opposed her and sought to 
divide the empire of Austria. In this war was fought the celebrated battle 
of Fontenoy. 



QUEEN ANNE 



WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 135 

was captured in June, 1745. Three years later, by the treaty of 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louisburg was returned to the French,^ 
to the great disappointment of the colonists, who felt their inter- 
ests had been sacrificed to those of England. 

131. The French and Indian War, 1754-1763. We now 
approach the last great conflict between the French and Eng- 
lish in the New World, which was but a part of the world-wide 
struggle between these great nations/'^ 

The French had command of the great waterways, the 
St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. A chain of forts had been 
established along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, on 
the Wabash and Illinois rivers, and down the Mississippi to 
its mouth, where the flag of France waved over the city 
of New Orleans. That line of forts — Detroit, St, Joseph, 
Vincennes, Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Chartres, New Orleans — 
gave the French control of the vast tract called Louisiana. 
They were now taking possession, as we shall see, of the Ohio 
valley in the name of Louis XV, and were building forts along 
the headwaters of the Ohio, beside the Allegheny River, on 
Lake Erie, and at Niagara. The French had the sympathy and 
support of the entire Algonquian family, but the Iroquois were 
held for the English by Sir William Johnson.'^ The English- 
speaking colonists at this time (1750) numbered a million and 
a quarter, while there were only eighty thousand in all New 
France. The English were settled for the most part along the 
Atlantic seaboard from Maine to Florida, hemmed in between 

1 Louisburg was exchanged for Madras in India, which had fallen into the 
hands of the French. England paid back to the colonies the amount they had 
spent in the expedition. As a result of this war the power of Spain in world 
affairs was broken and her fleets annihilated. England became the world's 
greatest naval power. 

- This conflict was called in Europe the Seven Years' War, and was waged 
by France, Spain, Sweden, Russia, Austria, and Poland against Frederick the 
Great of Prussia, who was aided by England. 

3 Sir William Johnson was of Irish birth and had settled near Schenectady to 
manage his estates. His dealings with the Indians had so endeared him to them 
that the Mohawk had adopted him into the tribe with the rank of sachem. 



136 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. They 
had now begun to turn their eyes across the Alleghenies, but 
the French line of settlements and forts seemed to present an 
unbroken front, preventing their westward progress. 

132. The Ohio Company. George Washington. In 1749 a 
number of Virginians organized the Ohio Company for the 
purpose of opening up lands along the Ohio. They obtained 
from the king a grant of five hundred thousand acres of land, 
mainly along the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, and sent 
surveyors to mark out the land. The French took alarm at this in- 
vasion of their territory and immediately erected a fort at Presque 
Isle (now Erie, Pennsylvania) on Lake Erie. Directly south 
they built a second fort, called Le Boeuf,^ and a third, named 
Venango, on the Allegheny. Governor Dinwiddle of Virginia 
sent a young man only twenty-one years of age, an adjutant 
general in the Virginia militia, to order them to cease build- 
ing these forts on English territor)-.'^ This )oung man was 
George Washington, whose name appears in this enterprise 
for the first time in the pages of history.-'^ 

133. The French at Fort Duquesne.^ The French promptly 
and firmly declined to yield to Dinwiddle's order. The latter, 
seeing there was no time to be wasted or the Ohio valley would 
be lost, sent a force to build a fort at the juncti®n of the 
Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. This point Washington 
had marked as of great military value. The P>ench came up 
as the English were at work, and compelled tHem to leave. 
Finishing the fort themselves, they called it Fort Duquesne in 

1 Le Boeuf (le biif). 

2 The demand was made on the ground that James I had given this territory 
to Virginia in his " sea-to-sea " grant. Dinwiddie declared it was universally 
known to be the property of the crown of Great Britain. 

^ In 1 75 1 occurred in England the important event of the change from the 
Julian calendar, which had been arranged by Julius Caesar, to the Gregorian 
calendar, recommended by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. There was an error 
of eleven days at this time, and September 3 was called September 14. This 
change was made also in the American colonies. 

* Duquesne (du kane'). 



UNITE OR DTE 



WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 137 

honor of the governor of Canada. Washington, with seventy- 
five men, hastened to the assistance of the Virginians, but was 
informed of their surrender before he had traveled far. He 
decided to push on, however, and after journeying some days, 
built a stockade, which he called Fort Necessity. Hearing of 
the approach of a body of French and Indians, he sallied out 
and killed and captured many of them ; but the main body of 
the French now appeared, and Washington, besieged in b'ort 
Necessity, was compelled to sur- 
render, July 4, 1754. Virginia now 
voted a gift of land to every man 
who would go to the front, and fifty 
thousand dollars were appropriated 
for military operations on the Ohio. 

134. The Albany Convention, 1754. illlstkahox usi:d in 
The English government now real- franklin's paper 

ized that strong steps must be taken 

or the French would control all the country west of the Appa- 
lachian Mountains. It requested, therefore, the governors of the 
various colonies to meet in Albany in a convention to make a 
treaty with the Iroquois Indians and to form a union of the 
colonies to advance their own interests and those of the king. 
Twenty-five delegates answered the call to this convention, which 
began June 19, 1754. Benjamin Franklin proposed here a 
" Plan of Union " ^ for the colonies against the French. 



1 In the Pennsylvania Gazette of this time appeared a device representing a 
snake cut into pieces. Each piece represented a colony, and beneath were the 
words " Unite or Die." Its author was Benjamin Franklin. Franklin was born 
in Boston in 1706. He was the youngest of seventeen children. His father was 
a candle-maker and wished Franklin to follow that trade, but Franklin preferred 
to be a printer. He went to New York and later to Philadelphia, where he 
finally settled. He was soon known throughout the colonies through his '" Poor 
Richard's Almanac." In 1753 he became deputy postmaster of all the English 
colonies in America. He invented the Franklin stove and the lightning rod, and 
proved the identity of electricity and lightning. He signed the Declaration of 
Independence, aided materially in bringing about the alliance with France, and 
sat in the convention that drew up the National Constitution. He died in 1790. 



138 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



135. The Plan of .Union. Under the Plan of Union there 
was to be a confederation with a president for all the colonies. 
He would have veto power and would be appointed by the king 
of England, A council was to be elected by the colonies to 
make treaties with the Indians, to lay taxes, and to regulate 
the defenses of the colonies by land and sea. 

Although the Plan of Union 
was adopted by the convention, 
it was rejected by the colonists. 
They feared that, as it removed 
the power of taxation from the 
colonial assemblies, it yielded 
too much power to the king. 
The king vetoed it because it 
promoted the idea of union 
among the colonies and granted, 
he thought, too many rights to 
the colonists. Nevertheless the 
convention was of great impor- 
tance, as it gave the colonies a 
groundwork for future union. 
At the same time it made the 
leading colonists better ac- 
quainted with each other and paved the way for the later 
united action against PZngland. 

136. Plan of Campaign. The English king now sent over 
two regiments of regulars under General Braddock, On his 
arrival Braddock summoned the colonial governors to Alexan- 
dria, Virginia, to discuss plans for carrying on the war. It was 
proposed to send an expedition against Fort Duquesne ; a 
second force planned to take the forts on Lake Champlain, 
opening that route to Quebec and Montreal, while a third army 
was to sail up the Hudson, to pass along the Mohawk valley, 
and, skirting the shores of Lake Ontario, to attack the forts 
near the Niagara River. Lastly, a fourth army was to cut off 




BEN'JAMIN FRANKLIN 



WARS OF rilE KN(nJSH AND THE FRENCH 139 

Acadia from New France and prevent raiding by the Indians 
on the New England settlements.^ 

137. Braddock's Defeat, July 9, 1755. Braddock commanded 
in person the expedition against lu)rt Duqucsne. Ignorant though 
he was of Indian warfare, he scorned advice and, looking with 
contempt on the skill of the Indians in war, pushed his way 
through the woods toward Fort Duquesne. When within eight 
miles of the fort, his troops were attacked by the enemy, who 
were hidden in the bushes. From every side poured in the 
bullets of the French and Indians. His forces were cut to 
pieces, he himself was mortally wounded, and Washington with 
difficulty saved the retreating troops by his masterly skill.^ 

138. The Expulsion of the Acadians, 1755. The province 
called Acadia — the territory now included in the peninsula of 
Nova Scotia — had been under the rule of France for a cen- 
tury, but in 171 3 it was transferred to the English, and for 
many years there were endless disputes about the territory. In 
1755 an expedition was directed against the French forces 
that held military posts there, which were quickly taken by 
the English. The inhabitants were nearly all French Catholics, 
who had prosperous farms and happy homes. The English, 
claiming that the Acadians as Frenchmen were constantly 
plotting against them and in favor of France, offered them in 
1755 for the last time the oath of allegiance to the king of Eng- 
land. They again refused to take it. The English thereupon 



1 The French line of defense extended in a great semicircle. Its left flank 
was the St. Lawrence, defended by Louisburg ; its center was Lake Champlain, 
defended by Ticonderoga ; its right flank was Lake Ontario, protected by Fort 
Frontenac, and the Ohio River, controlled by Fort Duquesne. The weakness 
of France was twofold : first, the necessity of sending large bodies of troops 
from France to the German front against Frederick ; second, the lack of 
cooperation between the French authorities in America. 

'■^ In this battle the English and the colonists lost fourteen hundred men 
killed and wounded, while the French and Indians lost only twenty-five. Far 
greater in its influence than the loss of men was the loss of prestige by the 
British among the Indians. The defeat opened the entire frontier from Penn- 
sylvania to South Carolina to the raids of the French and Indian war parties. 



140 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



resolved to expel them from the country. The cruel measure ^ 
was successfully carried out, no less than six thousand men, 
women, and children being placed on vessels and dropped along 
the coast from Massachusetts to Georgia among colonists who, 
while they did not welcome them, treated them kindly. Many 
of the exiles finally reached Louisiana, The torch was applied 




MAP ILLUSTRATING THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 



to the homes of the unfortunate people, and the fair fields of 
Acadia were for years a waste. 

139. Battle of Lake George. Fall of Fort William Henry. 

The bitter struggle had been in progress two years before the 
formal declaration of war between England and France. In 
September, 1755, Dieskau, the French commander, marched 
with fourteen hundred troops against F"ort Edward, near the 

1 AH the men, young and old, were ordered to meet at the village church 
of Grand Pre on the afternoon of Friday, September 5, 1755, to hear the 
intentions of the king in regard to them. The unsuspecting natives gathered 
and heard the fearful judgment. All their possessions except money and 
household goods were forfeited, and they were prisoners of the king. Before 
they could realize their position the church was surrounded by troops. 
Longfellow hastold the pitiful story of their sufferings in his poem " Evangeline." 



WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 141 

head of navigation on the Hudson. The Enghsh, marching to 
meet him, fell into an ambush and suffered terrible losses. 
They fell back to their camp at Lake George, where, defended 
by a barricade of trees and wagons, they successfully resisted 
the assault of the enemy. After a fight of five hours the 
French retreated. Dieskau was severely wounded and fell a 
prisoner into the hands of the English. 

In the following year (August 14, 1756) Montcalm attacked 
the forts at Oswego that commanded the entrance to Lake 
Ontario. They fell easily into his hands and were demolished. 
The French were now masters of the Great Lakes. In August, 

1757, Montcalm turned his attention to Fort William Henry 
at the head of Lake George. With seventy-six hundred men, 
including two thousand Indians, he besieged this important 
point. For days his batteries rained shot and shell on the 
fort till it surrendered, August 9, 1757. It was destroyed, and 
the French were now masters of Lake George and Lake 
Champlain.i 

140. William Pitt. French Reverses. Affairs became brighter 
for England when William Pitt, in 1757, became the ruling 
power there and threw all his energy toward carrying on the 
war. He planned three expeditions, the first against Louisburg, 
the second against Fort Duquesne, and the third against 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In July, 1758, Louisburg was 
attacked by fourteen thousand men and surrendered July 27, 

1758, with fifty-six hundred prisoners of war.^ 

In the meantime Montcalm, in his defenses at Ticonderoga, 
with only four thousand soldiers, was attacked July 8, 1758, by 
Abercrombie, with sixteen thousand men, the largest army of 

1 As the English troops were leaving the fort they were attacked by the 
Indians and sixty or seventy were massacred, despite Montcalm's attempts to 
restrain his savage allies. About four hundred were kidnaped by the Indians 
and were later ransomed by Montcalm. 

- In 1760 Great Britain ordered the total destruction of the fortifications, 
and nothing remains of Louisburg except the ruins and the huts of a few 
fishermen. Halifax became the stronghold of the English for this section. 



142 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

white soldiers that had ever been gathered on the continent. 
The English were repulsed, losing almost two thousand men. 

On November 25, 1758, Fort Duquesne was captured by 
General Forbes and named Pittsburgh in honor of William 
Pitt, the English statesman. 

A succession of defeats weakened the French. Fort Frontenac 
on Lake Ontario fell August 27, 1758, and its capture gave 
the English control of Lake Ontario, one of the two gateways 




QUEBEC 

to the West. About a year later Niagara was captured (July 25, 
1759) by Sir William Johnson, and the route to Lake Erie 
passed into the hands of the English. 

141. The Plains of Abraham, 1759, The English in 1759 
continued their general forward movements. One army moved 
up Lake George to Lake Champlain, and the French were com- 
pelled to abandon Ticonderoga (July 26, 1759) and Crown Point. 

General Wolfe, who had distinguished himself before Louis- 
burg, led an expedition against Quebec, the strongest fortress 
in America. Montcalm, with a strong army, defended the 
citadel, which was built on a rocky bluff, carefully guarded on 
every side except one, where a steep ravine seemed to defy any 



WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 143 

approach. After four months' attempt to draw Montcalm into 
a fight, Wolfe resorted to stratagem. One dark night, Septem- 
ber 12, 1759, he led his forces up the ravine to the Plains of 
Abraham behind the city.^ When day broke, the French were 
amazed to see the glittering ranks of the English, five thou- 
sand strong, drawn up in battle array. A fierce battle ensued 
in which the French were defeated, and both Montcalm ^ and 
Wolfe were mortally wounded. Quebec passed into the hands 
of the English, September 17, 1759, and the power of France 
in America was doomed.'^ 

"With the triumph of Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham 
began the history of the United .States," says Greene."* 

142. The Treaty of Paris, 1763. While the war was in 
progress between T' ranee and England, Spain had made an alli- 
ance with France. England thereupon declared war upon her 
and caj^tured Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippine 
Islands. 

1 While in his boat on his way to the attack Wolfe is said to have repeated 
this verse from Gray's " Elegy " : 

" The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power. 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
Await alike the inevitable hour. 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 
When he had finished he said, " I would rather have written those lines than 
take Quebec to-morrow." 

- Montcalm died on th.e day after his defeat. He was buried in the chapel 
of the Ursuline convent. When told that his wound was mortal he said, " I am 
happy that I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." 

8 On the monument to Wolfe and Montcalm in Quebec are Latin words 
which read in translation : 

" Valor gave them a united death, History a united fame. Posterity 
a united monument." 
As a result of this victory, Parkman says : " England blazed with bonfires. 
In one spot alone all was dark and silent; for here a widowed mother 
mourned for a loving and devoted son, and the people forbore to profane 
her grief with the clamor of their rejoicings." — " Montcalm and Wolfe," 
Vol. II. p. 324 

.After the fall of Quebec there was continued fighting between the English 
and French until Montreal surrendered. September 8, 1760. 
■* " History of the English People," Vol. IV, p. 197. 



144 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



In the treaty of peace made in Paris in 1763, at the end of 
the French and Indian War, three nations were involved. 

Under the terms of this 
treaty, 

I. France ceded to Eng- 
land the whole of Canada 
except two small islands.^ 
The French retained the 
right of drying their fish 
on the coast of Newfound- 
land. France also ceded 
to England all her posses- 
sions east of the Missis- 
sippi River except New 
Orleans and a near-by 
strip of territory .2 

I I . France ceded to her 
ally Spain, to recompense 
her for losses during the 
war, all the territory west 
of the Mississippi River 
including New Orleans. 

III. Spain ceded Florida 
to England in exchange 
for Havana and Manila, 
which had been captured 
during the war.-^ 

143. The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 1763. For some time the 
Indians of the West had been growing discontented. A con- 
spiracy was formed by an Ottawa chief, Pontiac, a man of great 
ability and daring, who had brought eighteen Indian nations 

1 These islands were St. Pierre and Miquelon, which were held to serve as 
a shelter for French fishermen. 

2 England also received from France the West Indian islands of Tobago, . 
Dominica, Grenada, and St. Vincent. 

, ^ Florida was ceded back to Spain in 1783. 




WOLFE S IMEN CLLMBIX(J TO THE PLAIXS 
OF ABRAHA.M 



WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 145 

under his rule. His plan was to attack all the English forts on 
the same day, May 7, 1763. Although the conspiracy finally 
failed, the Indians captured practically all the forts ^ in the 
West with the exception of Detroit, Niagara, and Fort Pitt. 
Along the entire Western frontier the settlers were murdered 
and scalped, and towns and plantations were destroyed. 

144. The Proclamation Line of 1763- When the vast- terri- 
tory of the West came under the British flag as the result of 
the treaty of peace of 1763, a grave question arose in England 
as to its future. Some wished to throw the whole territory 
open to settlement ; others preferred to keep it as an Indian 
reservation by drawing a line beyond which settlers could not 
go. This would prevent, it was hoped, Indian wars like that 
of Pontiac. Others preferred to keep Guadalupe in the West 
Indies, which had been captured from the French. They would 
hold the sugar fields of Guadalupe and leave the West to the 
French. This would secure the much needed tropical products, 
while the West, they said, was good for nothing except to pro- 
duce furs. By this plan also they believed the PVench would 
hem in the English colonists and thereby keep them in need 
of English protection. After much discussion in Parliament it 
was decided to draw a line along the ridge of the Alleghenies 
and to forbid settlement beyond this line. As need arose new 
settlements would gradually be formed under regulation by the 
government and with the consent of the Indian tribes. In this 
plan no attention was paid to the claims of the colonies to 
Western lands under the "' sea-to-sea " charter. In 1763 this 
so-called Proclamation Line was drawn. 

1 The forts captured by Pontiac were Fort Sandusky, P^ort St. Joseph at the 
head of Lake Michigan, MichiHmacinac, Ouiatanon on the Wabash, Miami on 
the Maumee, Presque Isle on the site of the city of Erie, Venango, and 
Le Boeuf, while Fort Pitt was besieged. At MichiHmacinac the Indians played 
a ball game, driving the ball nearer and nearer the fort, whose gates were wide 
open while the soldiers looked at the game. Suddenly the ball was driven 
inside the wall, and the Indians, rushing in as if to recover it, raised the war 
whoop, and, drawing tomahawks from under their blankets, butchered the Eng- 
lish with horrible cruelties. Pontiac was soon defeated and sued for peace. 



146 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 






The English ministry also decided to maintain a standing 
army of ten thousand soldiers in America to hold Canada and 
the new territory which had been ceded by France and Spain. 
To pay for this standing army the ministry decided to levy a 
tax on the colonies. This tax became so great a source of dis- 
content that it was one of the causes, as we shall see, leading 
to the American Revolution. 

145. The Quebec Act. In 1774 Parliament established a 
system of government for Canada. By the new act the Province 

of Quebec was extended to 
the Ohio and to the Missis- 
sippi rivers and northward 
to Hudson Bay. When 
Canada was ceded by France 
to England, the inhabitants, 
who were nearly all Catho- 
lics, were promised, so far 
as religious freedom was 
concerned, "all the rights 
of the subjects of Great 
Britain." At this time, how- 
ever, the Catholics in Great 
Britain had practically no 
legal rights. As a result the 
French inhabitants of Canada found themselves shut out of all 
franchises, offices, and even from the privilege of -'practicing in 
the courts. To remedy this intolerable condition the Quebec 
Act was passed. A reason for extending the Province of Quebec 
to the Ohio was the fact that there were large numbers of PVench 
settlements there which would be under no law or government, as 
that territory had been closed to lawful settlement by the Proc- 
lamation Line decree. By extending the territory of Quebec 
the governor of that province could enforce order over the 
territory. The English colonists objected strongly to the Quebec 
Act. as it closed the West to them. A more active reason was 




I r?""^- 



NORTH AMERICA AT CLOSE OF FREN'CH 
WARS, 1763 



WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 147 

the religious intolerance of the English colonists, who protested 
against this act of justice to the French Canadian settlers. The 
Canadians remembered this bitter antagonism, and when later 
the colonists sought their aid against England, they refused to 
betray the nation that had treated them so justly. 

SUMMARY 

King William's War (i 689-1 697) was largely Indian warfare, and 
neither side gained or lost valuable territory. 

Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). The usual Indian war raged 
along the outlying districts of New England. Port Royal was cap- 
tured by the English and named Annapolis. In the treaty of peace, 
signed at Utrecht in 17 13, the French ceded to England Acadia, 
Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay territory. This cession marked 
the first step in the final conquest of New France. 

King George's War (i 744-1 748). Louisburg was captured, but 
was returned to France in the treaty of peace of 1748, signed at 
Aix-la-Chapelle. 

The French and Indian War (i 754-1 763) resulted in the over- 
throw of French power in America. Canada was ceded (1763) to 
Great Britain. 

RESULTS OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, OR SEVEN YEARS' WAR 
In Aiiiericii : 

1 . Through it France lost practically all her possessions in the New World. 

2. It severed the alliance between Canada and the savage Indians. 

3. It taught the colonists to unite for a common purpose. 

4. It left only England to be conquered in the war for independence. 

5. It created an enormous debt, and with the establishment of a stand- 
ing army to protect England's newly acquired territory, caused the levying 
of new taxes, the direct cause of the American Revolution. 

6. _ It removed from the colonies the danger of Indian wars. 

/// Europe : 

1. It was the beginning of the colonial empire of Great Britain. 

2. It marked the rise of England as the world's greatest sea power. 

3. It began the establishment of British rule in India. 



148 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Dates to be remembered : 

1754. Albany Convention. Opening of the French and Indian War. 

1759. Fall of Quebec. 

1763. Treaty of Paris and cession of Canada to England.^ 

Persojis to know about : 

Montcalm, William Pitt, Wolfe, Pontiac, Braddock, Washington. 
Map work : 

Draw a map showing the possessions of the Spanish, French, and 
English after the Treaty of Paris of 1763. 

Find on a map Pittsburgh, Schenectady, Louisburg, Detroit, Lake 
Champlain, Ticonderoga. 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Draw an outline map of the territory held by the French and the 
English in 1 754 and on it locate, with names, four principal points of attack 
and defense in the French and Indian War (i 754-1 763). 

2. Mention an essential particular in which the French colonies in 
America differed from the English colonies in (a) government ; (/;) indus- 
tries. How was each of these differences an advantage to the French in 
war ? a disadvantage ? 

3. What territory did the English gain by the French and Indian War.? 
How did the war prepare the colonists for the Revolutionary War.'' 

4. Why would not the Iroquois fight for the French in the French 
and Indian War? What was the decisive batde in this war.? 

5. Who was the founder of the French power in America.? What 
European nations held control of North America at the close of the French 
and Indian War? 

6. Just before the French and Indian War, what was done to bring 
about a union of the colonies? What motto was printed by Franklin to 
show the need of union ? What was the Plan of Union ? 

7. Explain why it was important for the English in the French and 
Indian War to capture each of the following French strongholds : Fort 
Duquesne, Crown Point, Quebec. ' 

^ " The Seven Years' War left Great Britain the most powerful state on 
the globe, and heralded the rise of an English nation in the Western Hemi- 
sphere. Scarcely any other military struggle has produced so many events of de- 
cisive interest to mankind." — Howard, " Preliminaries of the Revolution." p. 3 



WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH 149 

8. Give two results of the French and Indian War. Give an account 
of Braddock's defeat at Fort Duquesne and Wolfe's victory at Quebec. 

9. Give the location of Acadia. Write a brief account of the expulsion 
of the Acadians. 

10. Give an account of the wars between the French and English in 
America, showing {a) general causes ; {p) special causes of the last war ; 
{c) comparative strength of the French and English colonies: (</) final 
result of the struggle. 

READINGS 

Histories. Alvord, C. W., The Mississippi Valley in British Politics. 
Bradley, A. G., Fight with France for North America. .Doughty and 
Parmelee, The Siege of Quebec and the Battle of the Plains of Abrahain. 
Parkm AX, A HalfCetitury of Conflict. Montcalm and Wolfe. Conspiracy 
ofPontiac. Old Regime in Canada. 'R\qylav:d,Y.., Acadia. Sparks, E. E., 
Expansion of the American People. Thwaites, France in America. 
Jesuit Relations. Wood, W. C. H., The Tight for Canada. 

Sources. Hart, American History told by Contemporaries, Vol. II, 
p. 312 (Foundation of Louisiana); p. 324 (Government of Canada); p. 360 
(Deportation of the Acadians). Muzzey, Readings in American History, 
p. 85 (La Salle on the Mississippi): p. 94 (Albany Plan of Union); p. 104 
(Fall of Quebec). Robixsox and Beard, Readings in Modern European 
History. \'ol. I. p. 62 (Braddock's Defeat); p. 64 (Quebec). 

Fiction. Catiierwood, M. H., The Lady ofFortSt.fohn (an interesting 
story of Acadia and the French and English rivalry). Cooper, Last of the 
Mohicans (an Indian tale of central New York). Hawthorxe, Grand- 
father's Chair (treats of the Acadian exiles). Hextv, G. A., With Wolfe 
in Canada. Loxgfellow, Evangeline{^o&TS\). Muxroe, K., At Warwith 
Pontiac (an excellent story of Indian method of warfare). Parker, G., 
Seats of the Mighty (deals with the capture of Quebec by Wolfe). 
Sewell, M. E., a Virginia Cavalier (a story of Washington in the 
French and Indian War). 



CHAPTER VIII 

" It is not a work for everyone to plant a colony ; but when a home is 
built, it is no hard matter to dwell in it." — Captain" Joiix Smith 

LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 

146. The Colonists and England. The year 1763 marks 
a turning point in American histoiy. The power of France 
in the New World was broken forever ; England was mistress 
of the vast territory stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
Mississippi River. The colonists now numbered about one 
million six hundred thousand, of whom four hundred thou- 
sand were negro slaves. They feared no longer the attacks 
from the French and Indians and, awake to their own strength, 
began to demand from England the rights which they asserted 
belonged to them as subjects of the British crown. These 
demands led to revolution. Before entering on this great 
struggle let us glance at the condition of the colonies at the 
signing of the peace treaty with France in 1763. 

147. Civil Government. Three forms of government existed 
in the colonies. 

I . Charter colonies : jMassachusctts (until 1684),^ Connecticut, 
and Rhode Island. 

The charter was a contract between the king and the colony, 
which specified the exact rights and powers w^hich each was 
to enjoy. It could not in theory be changed without the 
consent of both parties. 

In Connecticut and Rhode Island the governors were 
elected ; in Massachusetts they were appointed by the king. 
In all three colonies the Assembly was elected. 

1 In 16S4 Massachusetts lost its charter and became a crown colony. 
•5' 



152 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

2, Proprietary colonies : Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland. 
These colonies were governed by a proprietor, to whom the 

king had granted the land. This proprietor had power to dis- 
pose of the land to settlers, to establish a government, and 
to appoint a governor for his territory. 

3. Royal or crown colonies : New Hampshire, New York, New 
Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 

In these colonies the governor was appointed directly by 
the crown and was its personal representative. Royal colonies 
were therefore under the king's direct rule and were protected 
by no written charter. Each colony had a legislative body 
elected by the people.^ In all the colonies, however, the right 
to vote was allowed only to those who were members of a 
Protestant church ^ and either had a fixed yearly income or 
owned land. This deprived of the suffrage, or right to vote, not 
only the Catholics but the great mass of the people, as the 
holders of land or the possessors of a fixed income were few. 
The general direction of colonial affairs in England was in 
the hands of the Board of Trade and Plantations. 

148. Three Colonial Groups. Travel. So marked is the 
diversity of the physical features of the colonies, as well as 
their interests, manners, customs, and occupations, that they 
may be divided into three groups, — the New England, the 
Middle, and the Southern. The distinction between the colo- 
nies was the more marked because there were no regular or 
adequate routes of travel from one colony to .another. In 
traveling, the colonists depended upon stages, horseback, boats, 
or canoes. Wretched roads led from town to town and from 
one colony to another. Many of the roads were merely Indian 
trails, which were of use only on foot or horseback. It required 

1 If the acts of the colonial legislatures were vetoed by the governors, 
except in Pennsylvania, they failed to become laws. It was necessary that all 
acts passed by colonial legislatures except those of Connecticut, Rhode Island, 
and Maryland should be signed by the king of England to become laws. 

■^ In 1702 the Test Act of Queen Anne prevented anyone who was not a 
Protestant from holding any public office in the colonies. 



LIKK IN rHK ("OLONIKS IX 1763 



153 



four days to go by stage from New York to Boston. Three 
days were necessary from New York to Philadelphia until 
a faster coach called the "flying machine" made the trip 
in two days, a journey which to-day. requires only two hours. 
Sloops were also in general use to travel from New York to 
Philadelphia, this trip by water requirinii; generally four days. 




To the PUBLIC. 

THE FLYING MACHINE, kept by 
John Mercereau, at the New- Bla2)flg-Star- Ferry, 
near New-York, fets off froin'Powles-Hook every Mon- 
day, Wednefday, and Friday Mornings, for Philadelphia, . 

A TRANSPORTATION NOTICE 

149. The New England Colonies. These comprise Massa- 
chusetts/ New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, 
with a population of about six hundred thousand. Inhere were 
slaves, but the number was never large, as they were not 
profitable. I*"arming was the chief industi}- ; but the rugged 
nature of the land induced many colonists to become traders 
and mechanics. The forests were valuable in timber, and ship- 
building was consequently one of the greatest industries. The 
New England colonies carried on a profitable shipping trade 
with the West Indies,- where they obtained sugar, molasses, 

1 Maine was at this time a part of Massachusetts, and New Hampshire 
claimed a large part of Vermont. 

- Sixteen hundred vessels were employed in the trade of Boston. 



154 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



f 
J 



cotton, logwood, and slaves, and in return exported rum, salt 
fish, oysters, and flour. Slavery never obtained a foothold in 
New England, because it was not profitable. 

150. Government. Soojal Life. The political unit in New 
England was the town, a subdivision of the colony, not too 
large to prevent the people living in it from attending the 
same church. The town was the reproduction of the English 
parish, with some variations. The houses of the town were 

generally grouped around the 
village green, or common, with 
the church and school. In these 
towns the freemen voted in a 
" town meeting " on all questions 
of local government, elected exce- 
ls:— '-^|5^-=:- =:■=- I - " utive officers, who were called 
T,_. Z^P^=-rp:r~: ^^ f \ - selectmen, and chose also the rep- 

'^'' -»— ^E=»— resentatives of the town to the 

colonial legislature. Boston w-as 
the leading city of New I^ngland. 
The life of the people was 
guided by rather rigid rules. 
Absence from church on the 
Sabbath was visited with prompt punishment, and in general 
all social pleasures were frowned on. Certain grades of society 
were recognized, with distinctions of dress for each grade. ^ 
Seats in church were allotted according to wealth and education ."-^ 
Throughout all the colonies the aristocratic spirit prevailed. 

151. Colonial Homes. Education. The colonial houses were 
generally built of hewed logs or clapboards. The windows 
were frequently covered with oiled paper instead of glass. The 
furniture was rude, formed from the rough timber of the 






A SETTLER S LOG CAliLM 



1 The order of precedence was as follows : gentlemen, yeomen, merchants, 
mechanics, indentured servants, and negro slaves. 

2 For more than a hundred years after its establishment the students in Har- 
vard College were arranged according to their rank, instead of alphabetically. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 



155 



forest. Each house had a large open fireplace. The cooking 
was done on griddles or in pots swung into the fire on a 
crane. Meat was roasted by turning it over the fire on an 
iron rod, or spit, run through it. The food for the most part 
was salt pork, game, fish, hominy, mush made from Indian 
corn, succotash, rye bread, apples, and a porridge made of 




A (_UU)\1 \L KULULN 



beans or peas. The dress of the New England colonists was 
severely simple. The blockhouse was an important feature of 
practically every New England settlement. It was built of logs 
and generally had an overhanging second story. From port- 
holes the colonists could fire on attacking Indians. For the 
home the colonial type of architecture was developed and is 
exquisitely beautiful in its simple lines. It may still be seen in 
many parts of New England. 

Education was fostered by the New hLngland colonists 
from the foundation of the colonv. (irammar schools existed 



156 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



in some of the towns, and colleges were established. The 
Massachusetts colony gave four hundred pounds to found 
Harvard College in 1636. In 1701 Yale College was founded. 
In 1764 Rhode Island College was established, and later named 
Brown University. Dartmouth was chartered in 1769. 

152. Amusements. The amusements of the New England 
colonists consisted largely in a gathering together of the people. 
These gatherings were called "bees." Here the people raised 




^ 






SCENE IX A NEW ENGLAND TOWN 



new houses or barns, spun wool, made quilts, husked corn, 
prepared apples, and in many other ways joined together to 
aid one another. There were also shooting matches where the 
members showed their skill. On training days the setders 
were given a little instruction in military tactics to prepare 
them for Indian attacks. The theater was not allowed. The 
Puritan would not celebrate Christmas. Instead, on Thanks- 
giving Day the family gathered from far and near. A great 
feast of turkeys, chickens, plum puddings, pumpkin pies, mince 
pies, cakes, and nuts was served. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 



157 



153. Early Printing in the Colonies. In the early clays the 
colonists received their books and papers from England. The 
first book printed in English America was the Bay Psalm 
Book in 1640. This was almost exactly a century after the 
printing press had been introduced into Mexico by Bishop 
Zumarraga. The Bay Psalm Book was a metrical version of 
the psalms, compiled by ministers of the Massachusetts colony. 
In 1704 the Boston Xcivs-Lcttcr, 

the first permanent newspaper 
printed in the colonies, appeared. 
It was published weekly. Its page 
was only six inches long and four 
inches wide. By 17 19 Boston 
had five printing establishments 
and the other colonies soon had 
presses. 

154. Laws and Punishments. 
The law was the common law of 
England amended by legislation 
to suit the new conditions. In 
making such amendments the 
Levitical law of the Old Testa- 
ment was sometimes followed. In 
certain criminal cases death was 
the penalty. P'or lesser offenses 
branding on the cheek or fore- 
head was resorted to, or a letter to indicate the crime was 
fastened on the dress or suit of the culprit. At times the ears 
of the prisoners were cut off. Other punishments were lashing 
on the bare back, standing in the pillor)', or stocks, or wearing 
an iron collar. Criminals were at times sold as slaves to the 
planters in the West Indies. 

On the death of parents, property was di\ided by law 
among all the children. The eldest son frequently received 
a double portion. 




^^:M%ifteS 



Wr; 



^m 



From a drawing by Homer Colby 
based on contemporary sources 



158 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

155. Industrial Life. The cod, whale, bluefish, and mackerel 
fisheries were a source of great wealth, as the waters abounded 
in fish, and fishing towns grew up here and there along the 
coast. Despite the valuable water power throughout the colo- 
nies, only a small amount of manufacturing was carried on. 
Certain kinds of industry were forbidden by England, as iron 
manufacturing or the making of beaver hats. On a small 
scale, however, were carried on tanning, milling, linen weaving, 
paper manufacturing, and the distillation of rum from the 
molasses of the West Indies. The 
English government attempted by 
law to restrict this trade to the Eng- 
lish West Indies, but it was unable 
to do so, and smuggling was practiced 
to an enormous extent. 

156. The Middle Colonies ; Popu- 
lation and Industries. The middle 
colonies comprised New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and 
Maryland. The population of these 
DUTCH WINDMILL colouics aiiiountcd to about four 

hundred thousand and was com- 
posed of Dutch, Germans, Irish, English, French, and Swedes. 
The chief industries in the middle colonies were agriculture 
and commerce. Wheat, which was raised in large quantities, 
was ground in the windmills that dotted the hillsides every- 
where. A large fur trade was carried on with the Indians. New 
York maintained a thriving commerce with foreign ports, — 
especially with England, Spain, Portugal, and the West Indies, 
— foreshadowing the great commerce of that port at this day. 

There were few cities. Philadelphia, the largest city in all 
the colonies, had only twenty thousand inhabitants. New York 
City had a population of twelve thousand. 

The manor houses along the Hudson River were generally 
of stone. The houses in New York City built by the Dutch 




LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 



159 



were of brick with the crowstep gable roof. The houses had 
porches, where the thrifty Dutchmen sat at night and smoked 
their large-bowled pipes. 

157. Government. Social Life. In the middle colonies, as a 
rule, political affairs were directed by a system of town and 
county government, the voters in each town electing some of 
the county officers. 

In their social life the Dutch in New York maintained, 
through the patroon system, an aristocracy. On their vast 




HOUSE IN IMIILAUELI'HIA 15LULT HV PENX 



estates the patroons of the Hudson River followed the lavish 
entertainment and expenditures of the nobility of Europe. 

Pennsylvania and New Jersey were entirely free from aris- 
tocratic ideas, the Quakers spending their simple frugal life in 
tilling their farms and spreading plenty around them. Many 
brick houses were to be seen in the middle colonies. The 
bricks were brought as ballast in the vessels from England, as 
there was not freight enough in England to fill the vessels 
sailing to America. 

158. Amusements. The amusements of the middle colonies 
consisted in sleighing and skating, balls, picnics, singing 
schools, horse racing, cricket, and bowling. The latter sport 



i6o 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



was especially favored by the Dutch. Bowling Green was named 
from the fact that here the Dutch played at bowls nightly. They 
celebrated Christmas, New Year's Day, Easter, and May Day. 
159. Newspapers and Books. In 1685 William Bradford 
established the first printing press in the Pennsylvania colony. 
It was the first press in the colonies outside of Massachusetts. 

The first paper 




mill in the colonies 
of English Amer- 
ica was established 
by William Ritten- 
house in 1690 on 
the Wissahickon, 
a small river that 
flows through Phil- 
adelphia. 

In 1729 PVank- 
lin published the 
Pcimsylvania Ga- 
zette and in 1732 
began the publica- 
tion of the famous 
" Poor Richard's 
Almanac," which 
was so popular in 
all the colonies from its quaint sayings and homely truths. 
The New York Weekly Jeitmal was first published in 1733 
by John Peter Zenger. Zenger's arrest and acquittal for libel 
established the freedom of the press in English America. 
The Zenger case has been called "the morning star of that 
liberty which subsequently revolutionized America." 

160. Education. Under Dutch rule there were some ele- 
mentary schools, but the English, when they captured the 
colony, made little provision for elementary education. For 
higher education were established Princeton in 1746, King's 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 



i6i 



Poor Richard, 1 7 3 3 . 



A N 



Almanack 



FortheYcarofChrift 



73 



3' 



Being the F=rftaffer LEAP YEAR. 



Year. 

7241 
5742 

J4V4 



College (the present Columbia University) in 1754, the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1755, 
Queen's College (later Rutgers) in 1766, and Georgetown 
College in 1789. 

161. Punishments. Piracy 
was common in the waters 
around New \'ork. It was 
punished by hanging. Other 
forms of punishment were 
in general similar to those of 
New England. The pillory 
was to be seen here in fre- 
quent use as well as the 
whipping post. 

162. The Southern Colo- 
nies. Industries. The southern 
colonies comprised Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, and Georgia. In these 
colonies agriculture was the 
universal occupation. In Vir- 
ginia immense plantations 
stretched along the great 
rivers. Tobacco was raised 
everywhere in the colony and 
became the basis of all mer- 
cantile life. In South Carolina 
and Georgia rice and indigo 
were the leading productions. 

North Carolina furnished the products of the pine forests. 
Slavery was the basis of the industrial life of these colonies, 
and slave labor was used almost exclusively. The slaves were 
secured from Africa and from the West Indies through the 
cruel slave trade. Indentured servants were to be found in 
large numbers throughout these colonies. 



By tl;o AcrouHl of the Foftffm CiVz-^t. 
By the Ljtin Cliurch, wlier O ciif. r 
By rlic Con putai:''n of /> ' IV 
By the Romm Chcoiioloijy 
By tlicjwj^' KabSics 

Wh're/i: rs covTaiveJ 
The Lunarions, EcHpfes, Judgment cf 

■lie V\ c..:licr, SpMniT Tia s riai^fts Mo(il>^si/ 
ii'.utual AlpciK, Siin un.) Moon\ Hifing aid Scl 
finj!;, Lcn-th nf Days, Ti.nc of High Water, 
Fairs, Courts, aiu) oSr-rv.ihlff Days 

I'ittccitorhe Latitude of jorry Dc'rces, 

■and a Mc.idjin oHmv-- Ho.ns W.'l Um^ irr.-V-,, 
l>ur nuy witlvr.u rcnfihlc Error (ervcallthi- a<l- 
jic'}-.r i'L.ccs, even from \c-j.li'u>:.!hnj to Sa,!h. 



By RICHARD S^JUNDERS, Philotn 



P H I L A D E r. P Fl I A : 

.Intrd and twl.! I>v H. FlUNKL/N. u Uif NVw 
Priniifig OScc ncjr llic lA'.aikct 



The TJ>ifd ImprcflioH 



ITI.KI'AfiE FKOM FRANKLIN 
POOR RICHARD'S ALMANAC 



l62 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



163. Government. Social Life. Local political affairs in the 
southern colonies were regulated by county officers, who were 
appointed by the governor of each colony. The ever-increasing 
size of the plantations removed the planters farther and farther 
from one another, and in consequence there were few towns. 
The plantation was a village in itself. Vessels sailed up the 
rivers and touched at its wharf ; it had its own blacksmiths, 
carpenters, coopers, tailors, and shoemakers. It had its own 

mills for grind- 
ing corn and 
, warehouses for 

tobacco. The 
stately home 
of the planter 
was generally 
built of wood 
or brick. With 
its score of 
servants it was 
the abode of 
wealth and hos- 
pitality. Christ- 
mas was cele- 
brated with great festivities. Here and there were grouped the 
cabins of slaves. As a rule the planters were well educated. 
Their study of history and politics gave them an'' insight into 
the direction of political affairs which made them leaders in 
the American Revolution. 

The laws regarding the descent of property varied greatly in 
these colonies. In Virginia, on the death of the owner, the 
estate passed to the eldest son, as was the law in England, This 
prevented the division of estates and aided in building up a 
landed aristocracy. There were, in consequence, so few towns 
that the Virginia legislature at one time ordered towns to be 
built, but the law had little effect. 




NEGRUliS KOLLI.XG TOBACCO 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 



163 



In all the southern colonies the Church of TLngland — that is, 
the official state Protestant church of Great Britain — was estab- 
lished by law, and fines and imprisonment were sometimes 
imposed for refusal to support this church, 

164. Education. The English colonial governors were in- 
different to the establishment of schools or the spread of edu- 
cation in the South. So extensive were the plantations that 
schools could be established only with great difficulty, and the 
children of the poor in consequence received very little education. 




%J^- 



< 5 







DOUGHOREGAN MANOR 

Home of Charles Carroll of Carrollton 



Printing was forbidden by law in Virginia in the seventeenth 
century. Governor Berkeley said, in 1670, " I thank God 
there are no free schools nor printing [presses] in Virginia and 
I hope we shall not have [them] these hundred years." Private 
teachers were employed by the planters to instruct their chil- 
dren. The only college in the South, William and Mary, was 
established in 1693. The sons of the planters were generally 
sent abroad to be educated. lM)r the poorer classes there were 
no schools. 

165. General View. The life of colonial days would seem a 
great hardship to us. The houses had no system of steam, 
hot-water, or furnace heating. In the kitchen was a large 
fireplace, wide enough to hold logs five feet long. Here the 



1 64 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



cooking was done. Only from the fireplace could the kitchen 
and living room be heated. There was no heat in the sleeping 
rooms. Churches were generally without heat, as was the case 
with many of the schools. It was not until 1742 that Franklin 
invented his open-front stove. Coal was not in use at this time ; 
in fact, the first hard, or anthracite, coal brought to Philadelphia 

arrived in 1803, and it 
was many years before its 
use became general. As 
matches had not been in- 
vented, fire was obtained 
by striking a flint and catch- 
ing the spark in tinder. 
At times a boy was sent to 
borrow a few live wood 
coals from a neighbor. 

There was no system of 
bringing water into a house 
by pipes from a general 
reservoir. Each house had 
its own well in the yard 
and the water was drawn 
up in the " old oaken 
bucket." Gas, kerosene, 
or electricity had never 
been used. ■- A tallow 
candle or whale-oil lamp furnished the unsteady light. Children 
frequently read by the light of the fireplace. 

The clothing, except for those who imported it from Europe, 
was homespun and deerskin. Every house had a spinning 
wheel and it was constantly in use. Boots were made of cow- 
hide. The wealthy colonists, however, were gorgeous in suits 
of silk and velvet, decorated with lace and gold. The wealthy 
social leader of those days carried a gold-headed cane and an 
elaborately carved snuffbox. He wore shoes with large silver 




COLONIAL COSTUMES OF THE SOUTH 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1763 165 

buckles, knee breeches, and a tall beaver hat. Very many of 
the fruits and vegetables we now use daily were unknown in the 
early days. Travel was slow, dangerous, and uncomfortable as 
the coaches were heavy, the streams often without bridges, and 
the roads poor. Frequently the passengers were compelled to get 
out and help to draw the coach from the mud into which it had 
sunk. In winter travel was a serious matter as the coach generally 
started at three in the morning and had of course no heat in it. 
Surgery was pain because anesthetics had not been discovered. 
There were no telephones or telegraph to carry the news with 
the speed of lightning. The steam engine had not been in- 
vented, neither had the trolley nor the automobile. Most people 
traveled on horseback, or used boats if it was possible to go 
by water. In New England a common sight was the blockhouse 
of the village, where the colonists could seek shelter in case of 
Indian attack. At times the whole village was surrounded by 
an enclosure called a stockade. Battling with the Indians and, 
in a large part of the colonies, with a rigorous climate, the 
colonists built up hardy constitutions which stood thcni in good 
stead in the arduous labors of their daily life. 

READINGS 

Histories. Earle, A. M., Costu»ie in Colonial Times. Home Life in 
Colonial Days. Stage Coach and Tavern Days. EociLESTOX, Edward, 
Household History of the United States. Our First Century. Fassett.J. H., 
Colonial Life in New Hampshire. Fisher, S. G., J/^//, Women, and 
Mantiers in Colonial Days. Hart, A. B., Colonial Children. iRVixfi, 
The Sketch Book. Scudder, H. E., Men and Manners in America a 
Hundred Years Ago. Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred 
Years Ago. 

Sources, Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. II, p. 173 (A Colonial Legisla- 
ture); p. i92(The Zenger Trial); p. 2 14 (A Town-Meeting); p. 224 (Travel 
in New England, 1704); p. 235 (Society in Virginia); p. 244 (Official Pro- 
tection of Pirates); p. 266 (A College Student's Life, 1758); p. 291 (First 
Slavery Protest, Germantown, 1688). MuzzEV, Readings, p. 50 (Early New 
York); p. 75 (Observations of Two Foreign Visitors). 



1 66 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Write on the following: The manners and customs of the Dutch 
colonists as contrasted with the manners and customs of the southern colonists. 

2. Mention five articles com- 
monly found in the homes of colo- 
nial days that are not found in the 
homes of to-day. 

3. Draw an outline map of the 
United States and on it indicate 
where the following made explora- 
tions : La Salle, De Soto, Verrazano, 
Marquette, Hudson. 

4. What reasons are there for 
calling Benjamin Franklin a great 
American ? 

5. Compare the home life in a 
New England town during colonial 
times with the home life on a south- 
ern plantation during the same period. 

6. Tell why manufacturing and 
commerce were not carried on more 
extensively in the colonies. 

7. Trace the progress made in 
lighting houses since colonial days. 

8. If you had been one of the 
early settlers in colonial times, in 
which of the colonies should you have 
preferred to settle ? Give reasons for 
your answer. 

9. Of what material were the houses of the early settlers generally 
built.'* Describe the methods of cooking in colonial homes. Mention two 
articles of food in general use among the colonists. 

10. What do you understand by blockhouse, stockade, spinning wheel, 
colonial fireplace? 




THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



CHAPTER IX 

" The great event in the history of the continent . . . that prodigy of 
modern times, at once the wonder and the blessing of the world, is the 
American Revolution.'" — Wi-:i5sti;k, " Bunker Hill Address" 

THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 

166. Reasons for Colonial Taxation. Tlie expenses of the 
wars between the French and EngHsh in America and Europe 
were so great that the national debt of England had been 
doubled.^ The British statesmen, therefore, decided to compel 
the American colonists to pay part of the cost of administer- 
ing the colonics. They gave as a reason that the French and 
Indian War had been waged to drive the French out of the 
valley of the Ohio River for the benefit of the colonists and 
therefore the colonists should bear part of the cost of defense. 
England decided at this time also to maintain a small stand- 
ing army of about ten thousand men in America to protect 
Canada and ward off organized Indian attacks such as that of 
the great chief Pontiac. It was especially to meet the expense 
of this new standing army that the new taxes were proposed in 
Parliament for the American colonies. 

1 The debt increased from about seventy million pounds to nearly one 
hundred and forty millions. King George III came to the throne of England 
in 1760. He found the Whig ministers and Parliament in control of the affairs 
of the nation. Stubborn and self-willed to a marked degree, he wished to rule 
as he pleased, and to this end gathered around him men of the Tory party who 
would follow his bidding. The troubles in America aroused his deepest anger, 
and he was resolved to break the will of the colonists and bring them under 
his absolute control. By bribery and corruption he was able to control Parlia- 
ment. He was at times insane, and a regency ruled in his place. In the last 
years of his life his mind was entirely clouded by insanity. It is said of him 
that " he inflicted more profound and enduring injuries upon his country than 
any modern English king." 

.67 



i68 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

167. The Navigation Acts. From the very beginning Eng- 
land had looked on the colonies, especially as they increased 
in wealth, as a good field for the raising of revenues for the 
British crown. She also looked to them as a means of enrich- 
ing her own home merchants and manufacturers by securing 
from the colonies cheap raw materials for manufactures and 
by selling to the colonies at a high price her manufactured 
articles. In brief, England believed at that time, as did all 
other European nations, that colonies existed merely for the 
good of the mother countr)\i With this view, and in pursuance 
of a policy of protection and monopoly of English commerce 
and industry, the Navigation Acts were enacted, the first in 
1660 and others in 1663 and in 1672. The object of the 
Navigation Acts was to protect English shipping against for- 
eign competitors (especially the Dutch, who were now sending 
their ships to every port), to give English merchants a monopoly 
of the commerce with the American colonies, and to give to the 
manufacturers of England complete control of the trade of the 
American colonial market. 

The first of these acts provided that colonial trade could be 
carried on only in ships owned in England or in the colonies, 
that all goods must be brought directly to the British Isles 
from the place where they were produced, that the coasting 
trade should be closed to all foreign vessels. Later it was 
provided that certain specified or enumerated articles — 
tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, ginger, dyestuffs. — could be 
carried only to English ports, even English or colonial vessels 
being forbidden to bring these articles elsewhere. Articles 
other than these could be sent anywhere, provided they went 
in English or colonial vessels. 

1 During the nineteenth century the view, with shght modifications, that 
colonies were expected to be a source of profit for the mother country again 
became common except for Great Britain, whose colonies have either free 
trade or a very low tariff. To foster the idea that " trade follows the flag," 
colonies under the rule of France, Germany, Holland, and the United States 
have been subjected to heavy import duties against foreign competition. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 169 

The act of 1663 required all European goods to be first 
landed in an English port, and finally that of 1672 forbade 
the colonies to trade directly with one another unless they 
paid duties. Rice, molasses, copper, furs, and naval stores 
were added to the list of goods that must be sent only to 
England. 1 

The colonists were forbidden (1699) to manufacture the 
wool 2 raised in America. It was necessary to export it to 
England, where it was woven into cloth and returned to the 
colony. It was forbidden to manufacture iron, except in its 
crude forms, in the colonies, and grain exported to England 
was heavily taxed to aid the British farmer. Although the 
Navigation Laws had been enacted a century before this time, 
they had seldom been enforced. In 1761 the British decided 
to strictly enforce them and thereby obtain greater revenue. 

168. Writs of Assistance. To enforce the acts, British cus- 
toms officials asked the Superior Court of Massachusetts for 
permission to use writs of assistance.'^ 

The application for these writs aroused the most intense 
excitement. James Otis was the advocate general, and it was 
his duty as an officer of the crown to plead in favor of them. 
Rather than do so he resigned, and for five years opposed the 
granting of them. "' Every one with this writ may be a tyrant," 

1 Of all the acts in restraint of colonial trade and activity one of the most 
objectionable to the colonists was the Molasses and Sugar Act of 1733. This 
act was passed solely to aid the British planters in the West Indian sugar 
islands and placed so heavy an import duty on molasses and sugar that the 
trade between the colonies and the French, Spanish, and Dutch West Indies 
would have been destroyed if it had been enforced. It was against the Molasses 
Act that the first outspoken resistance to Great Britain, a forerunner of the 
Revolution, developed. 

2 It was forbidden to export any machinery or patterns of machinery from 
England. It was intended that this law would aid in preventing the growth of 
manufactures in America. 

8 A writ of assistance was a general search warrant to enter any house or 
to board any ship and search for smuggled goods. Its great dangers lav in the 
fact that the officer could make his search at any time, entering by force, if 
necessary, without specifying previously what goods he was searching for. 



70 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



he thundered. 1 In spite of the eloquence of Otis the writs were 
granted. The colonists knew no way of resisting them, as they 
were perfectly legal ; but the spirit of revolution was now 
beginning to show itself, and it broke out in full vigor when 
the ministry of England decided to lay a direct tax on the 
colonies and secure revenue to pay one third of the cost of 
maintaining the new standing army 
in America. 

169. The Stamp Act, 1765. This 
direct tax was called the Stamp Act. 
It provided that legal paper, licenses, 
written contracts, advertisements, and 
newspapers must bear stamps. The 
cost of these stamps ranged from one 
cent to fifty dollars ^ according to the 
value of the paper to which they were 
attached. One of the provisions of the 
act was that all offenses against it 
might be tried in any part of the 
the scene of the offense, and in an 
a jury. This was in effect a direct 




^r•SHIlLI.lLS■(SS/ 



REVENUE STAMP USED 
IN THE COLONIES 



kingdom instead of at 
admiralty court without 
blow at the right of trial by jury. 

The Stamp Act was passed in the British Parliament with- 
out any noteworthy opposition ; but when the intense feeling 
of the colonies was known, their part was taken by several 



1 " Then and there was the first scene of the first act of opposition to the 
arbitrary claims of Great Britain. Then and there the child Independence was 
born. In fifteen years, namely in 1776, he grew to manhood and declared 
himself free." — John Adams, " Works," Vol. X, p. 247 

2 It was estimated that the Stamp Act would provide about five hundred 
thousand dollars a year in revenue. As a rule the taxes in America were less 
than those levied in England at this period. Franklin and other colonial 
agents were in England at this time and did not realize the storm the Stamp 
Act would arouse in the colonies. The English ministry was willing to change 
the plan of a stamp tax if any other plan of raising revenue would be more 
agreeable to the colonies. The plan was laid over for a year, but no other plan 
was proposed by the colonial agents, and the Stamp Act was thereupon passed. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



171 



prominent statesmen, including Pitt, Barre, and Edmund 
Burke. The opposition to the act in England was led by the 
Whigs and the merchants. Those who sustained the act were 
the Tories, the friends of the king, 
who declared that " obedience first 
and conciliation afterwards " must be 
the ]X)licy of Parliament. 

170. Opposition to the Stamp Act. 
The passage of the Stamp Act 
aroused the utmost indignation in 
America.^ It was something almost 
undreamed of in American history. 
As each colony elected its own 
assembly or legislature, this as- 
sembly, according to the colonial 
idea, was the only power that could 
levy taxes on the people. Added 
to this was the fact that the colo- 
nies were already paying a heavy share of taxation to Great 
Britain. Virginia was the first colony to raise its voice in pro- 
test. A young lawyer, Patrick Henry,^ presented the following 
resolutions : 

Resolved, That the taxation of the people by themselves or by 
persons chosen by themselves to represent them, who can only know 
what taxes the people are able to bear, ... is the distinguishing 
characteristic of British freedom. 




WILLIA.M HITT 



^ In his speech Pitt said : " The gentleman tells us that .America is obsti- 
nate, America is almost in open rebellion. I rejoice that America has resisted." 
Pitt denied the right of Parliament to pass the law. Burke acknowledged the 
right, but declared it was not expedient to do so. William Pitt, who became 
prime minister in 1783, was the second son of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham 
(see sect. 139). 

- In Wirt's " Life of Patrick Henry "we read : " It was in the midst of this 
magnificent debate that he exclaimed in a voice of thunder, ' Csesar had his 
Brutus ; Charles the First, his Cromwell ; and George the Third [' Treason I ' 
cried the Speaker. ' Treason ! ' ' Treason ! ' echoed from every part of the house] 
— may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it.'" 



172 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Resolved, therefore, That the general assembly of this colony has 
the only and sole exclusive right and power to levy taxes upon the 
inhabitants of this colony. 

In Boston Samuel Adams, who has been sometimes called 
the Father of the Revolution, attacked the measure at a meet- 
ing in the famous old Fanueil Hall, the Cradle of Liberty. 

171. The Stamp Act 
Congress, 1765. At the 
suggestion of the General 
Court of Massachusetts a 
letter was sent (June 8, 
1765) to all the colonies 
calling for a congress. 
In answer to this letter 
delegates from nine of 
the colonies met in New 
York, October 7, 1765, 
and wrote a declaration 
of rights and grievances, 
which was sent to the king 
and to both of the houses 
of Parliamerit in England.^ 
The declaration said, 
among other things, that as the colonists had no representation 
in Parliament, only their own representative colonial assemblies 
could impose taxation and that the right of trial, by jury could 
not lawfully be denied. ^ The struggle had now begun, and 
the war cry was, " Taxation without representation is tyranny." 

1 The colonists might have had a higher opinion of Parliament did they not 
know that, owing to the unjust system of the franchise through property 
requirements and " pocket boroughs," the majority of the House of Commons 
was elected by only fifteen thousand voters ; in fact, one hundred and fifty- 
four persons selected three hundred and seven members. Seats in Parliament 
were openly bought and sold like merchandise. 

" It is important to remember that the colonists did not ask to be repre- 
sented in Parliament, but merely demanded that any money needed by England 
from them should be voted by their own colonial assemblies. 




PATRICK HENRY 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 173 

On the first of November, the day on which the act was to 
go into effect, the colonists showed their violent opposition 
by forming a club called the Sons of Liberty. The members 
of this society pledged themselves to wear no goods made in 
England. They went about the streets mobbing and burning 
in effigy the officers and destroying the stamp offices to the 
cry of " Liberty, property, and no stamps ! " 

The colonists agreed not to buy, sell, or use the articles that 
had been stamped and to cease using English goods. To the 
merchants of London the loss of their colonial trade meant dire 
disaster, as one third of the foreign trade of England was with 
the American colonies. They gladly joined with the colonists 
for the repeal of the law. So great was their influence that 
the law was repealed March 18, 1766, "an event," says 
Burke, "" that caused more universal joy throughout the British 
Dominion than perhaps any other that can be remembered." 

172. The Townshend Acts, 1767. Although the Stamp Act 
was repealed, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act,i assert- 
ing its right in all cases to tax the American colonies. The 
next year, 1767, as if to enforce this right, Parliament passed 
the Townshend Acts,^ three in number : the first prohibited 
the New York legislature from passing any more laws until it 
had made provision for furnishing barracks and supplies to 
the royal troops in the city ; the second enforced more strictly 
the laws relating to trade by establishing a Board of Commis- 
sioners of the Customs ; the third placed taxes or import 

1 The Act declares that Parliament '' had, hath, and of right ought to have 
full power and authority to make laws and statutes of sufficient force and 
validity to bind the colonies and people of America, subjects of the crown of 
Great Britain in all cases whatsoever." It also declared that all resolutions, 
votes, orders, and proceedings denying this right of Parliament are null 
and void. 

2 These acts received their name from Charles Townshend, Chancellor of 
the Exchequer. William Pitt was now Earl of Chatham, but he had to retire 
as prime minister because of illness. Townshend died in 1767. before all the 
acts that bear his name became laws, and his place was taken by Lord North, 
a favorite of the king. 



174 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

duties on glass, paper, tea, lead, and painters' colors. ^ This 
was taxation without representation again, and once more the 
colonists rebelled. Merchants refused to import English goods. 
British dealers found their orders canceled and their vessels 
returning with the goods sent to America. The legislature of 
Massachusetts sent (February ii, 1768) a circular letter to the 
other colonies, inviting them to a conference to oppose the new 
taxes. At the command of the king. Governor Bernard ordered 
the legislature of Massachusetts to recall the letter. Upon its 
refusal to do so the legislature was dissolved. The other colo- 
nial legislatures were ordered by their governors to ignore the 
letter, and upon their refusal to do so they were also dissolved. 
173. The Boston Massacre, 1770. In October, 1768, two 
regiments of English troops arrived in Boston to enforce the 
new tax laws. The people resented the presence of the troops. 
On the evening of March 5, 1770, a quarrel arose, a large 
throng gathered, and the soldiers fired on the people. They 
killed four and wounded seven ^ of the citizens, two of whom 
died from their wounds.'^ The following day there was an im- 
mense gathering of the people in the Old South Meeting House,* 

1 From the money thus raised governor, judges, and crown attorneys were 
to be paid instead of by the colonial assemblies, as had been the custom. This 
would render these officials independent of the colonial legislatures ; an army 
was to be supported, and, in addition, pensions were to be paid if any money 
was left. The people saw in this an attempt on the part of the British king to 
compel the colonists to pay the salaries of men who might be hostile to them 
and might work solely for the benefit of the king. Another cause of discontent 
was the belief that the English government intended to establish a Bishop of 
the Church of England in America and to compel all the colonists to pay 
tithes for the support of that church. 

- Among those killed was Crispus Attucks, a mulatto. A monument to him 
and his companions who fell stands on Boston Common. 

^ The soldiers were tried for murder and were defended by John Adams and 
Josiah Quincy. All were acquitted except two, who received slight punishment. 

* They had first gathered in Faneuil Hall. This famous building was built 
in 1740 by Peter Faneuil, a merchant, as a market house for the town. It con- 
tains a spacious hall and has always been called the Cradle of Liberty 
because of the numerous meetings held there to protest against the acts of 
Great Britain. 



THE PERIOD OE THE REVOLLJTION 



75 



and Samuel Adams demanded the removal of the troops. 
That evening they were transferred to an island in the 
harbor. The Boston Massacre, as it was called, aroused the 
whole country. The Revolution was rapidly approaching. 







THK liOSTON MASSACRE 
From Paul Revere's engraving 

174. The North Carolina Regulators, 1771. The Westward 
Movement. In no section was the iron hand of British officials 
more heavily felt than in the upper counties of North Carolina. 
Here the Irish and Scotch farmers, who comprised the greater 
part of the population, arose in revolt against Tryon, the royal 
governor. Under the name of " Regulators " they fought at 
Alamance a bloody battle with the colonial militia. The Regu- 
lators were badlv defeated. 



176 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAxN HISTORY 

In disgust at the conditions that had existed in the southern 
colonies, and which could not be remedied under royal rule, 
large numbers of settlers had crossed the Allegheny Mountains. 
They were leaders in the great Westward movement that later 
settled the Ohio and Mississippi valleys.^ 

175. Burning of the Gaspee, 1772. A daring event occurred 
in 1772 which showed still further the independent spirit 
of the colonists. To enforce the revenue laws an eight-gun 
schooner, the Gaspee, was stationed in Narragansett Bay, The 
commander overhauled vessels and acted in so tyrannical a 
manner that the colonists resolved to take a decisive step. 
In June, 1772, the Gaspcc, while chasing an American ship, 
ran aground. On the following night she was surrounded by a 
party of disguised men in eight boats and burned to the water's 
edge. Although a large reward was offered for the arrest of 
the guilty persons, they were never discovered. 

176. Repeal of the Townshend Acts. Boston Tea Party. 
On the day of the Boston Massacre a bill was introduced into 
the British Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts, except 
the tax of six cents a pound on tea. This was retained that the 
right of Parliament to impose taxes could be maintained. 
Although it was a small tax,^ the principle involved was the 
point at issue. If Parliament could legally tax tea, it could 
also levy any taxes it saw fit.'^ 

1 These early settlers had spread rapidly into the territory along the Ohio. 
As a result, at the Treaty of Paris of 1763 the United States received all the 
territory as far as the Mississippi River, instead of to the Alleghenies as might 
have been the case had not these settlements been made. 

2 This tax was so small that the royal treasury would not have received 
more than fifteen hundred dollars a year. 

^ " It is doing nothing to repeal a few scraps of paper or pieces of parch- 
ment called'' Acts of Parliament,'" said William Pitt, "but our business is to 
repeal the ill-will and the animosity unfortunately now subsisting between 
Great Britain and North America." Pitt, however, was absolutely opposed to 
anything that tended toward indepe?ide?ice for the colonies. In fact, his last 
speech in the House of Lords (April 7, 1778) was an earnest protest against 
American independence, which, he said, " would bring about the dismember- 
ment of this ancient and most noble monarchy." 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 177 

The colonists therefore refused to buy or use the tea, even 
though under the new law it was cheaper in America than in 
England. Ships full of tea were sent to Charleston, Philadel- 
phia, Boston, New York, and other ports. The people of 
Philadelphia and New York would nor allow the vessels to 
land and sent them back. In Annapolis the Peggy Stczvaj't, 
loaded with tea, was burned. In Boston the British officers 
would not allow the vessels to be sent back. On the night of 
December 16, 1773, a party of men, disguised as Indians, 
boarded the ships, ripped open three hundred and forty-two 
chests, worth about ninety thousand dollars, and spilled the tea 
into the harbor. This was a direct affront to the king, and 
Parliament at once resolved to punish Massachusetts. This 
was done by passing the so-called Five Intolerable Acts, 

177. The Five Intolerable Acts, 1774. The first act, called 
the Boston Port Bill, ordered the port of Boston to be 
closed until the people had paid for the destroyed tea. The 
customhouse was removed to Marblehead.^ and the seat of 
government to Salem. 

The second act changed the charter of Massachusetts and 
deprived the people of practically all their political rights. It 
provided for a military governor and forbade town meetings 
without permission of the governor, except for the purpose of 
electing officials. 

The third act provided that an\- magistrate, soldier, or 
officer of the crown arrested for murder should be tried in 
England. 

The fourth act made it legal to quarter troops on the 
people .- 

' Instead of seeking profit by the affliction of Boston, .Salem and Marble- 
head generously offered their wharves to Boston merchants. South Carolina 
sent rice, and New York, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut sent either 
supplies or money. 

* That is, the colonies where soldiers were stationed were required to 
furnish them not only with shelter but also with firewood, drink, bedding, 
soap, and candles. 



178 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The fifth act arranged a new province of Quebec ^ and estab- 
Hshed the old French laws in the territory. This prevented all 
representative government. It granted, however, freedom of 
worship to the Catholics in the province. This act included 
all that part of Canada which had been ceded by the French. 
It also included the Northwest Territory ; that is, the land west 
of the Alleghenies to the Mississippi and north of the Ohio. 
This territory to-day embraces practically all the states of Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Minnesota. (See sect. 145.) 

178. The First Continental Congress, 1774. The other 
colonies came to the assistance of Massachusetts. Led by 
Patrick Henry, ^ Virginia passed a resolution ordering the day 
on which the Boston Port Bill was to go into force to be a day 
of fasting, humiliation, and prayer.^ When the governor heard 
of this resolution he dissolved the legislature. Committees of 
Correspondence were now named to write to the other colonies, 
urging the necessity of another congress. All the colonies 
except Georgia approved, and September 5, 1774, fifty-five 
delegates met in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia. 

TJiis was the First Continental Congress. This Congress 
presented a declaration of the rights of the colonists and a list 
of their grievances. It declared that as they could not properly 
be represented in Parliament, it was only right that their own 
provincial assemblies should make all local laws and lay all 
taxes. It was, they declared, unlawful for Great Britain to tax 
the people without their consent, to try persons without a jury, 
to dissolve the legislative assemblies, to refuse the right to hold 

1 The Quebec Act was really passed witfiout reference to the action of the 
colonies. As it extended the province of Quebec southward to the Ohio, the 
colonies of Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts claimed it violated their 
charters, which gave them the territory from sea to sea. 

2 In his famous speech, made in the Virginia Convention,' Patrick Henry, in 
a burst of patriotic fervor, exclaimed : " There is no longer any room for hope. 
We must fight. I repeat it, sir ; we must fight." 

^ The other colonies also observed this date as a day of fasting. The bells 
in Philadelphia were muffled and tolled, and similar evidence of intense 
feeling was shown in other places. 




/ ■''' ^LaN\V X( -f \Tk\]?^ "vis ^ 



I -*« XHF. REVOLUTION 

THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 



CiLE OF MILES 



10 20 40 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 179 

public meetings, ^nd to quarter troops on the people in time of 
peace. An address was issued to the people of Great Britain 
and to the English king. The delegates agreed not to trade 
with England until the objectionable laws were repealed. It 
was voted to meet again on May 10, 1775, and take action on 
the answer of the king to their petitions. 

179. Capture of Fort William and Mary, 1774. One of the 
delegates to the First Continental Congress was John Sullivan 
of New Hampshire. Learning from Paul Revere (December i 3, 
1774) that a force was coming to seize the gunpowder and sup- 
plies in Fort William and Mary at Newcastle, New Hampshire, 
he assembled a company and surprised the fort, hauled down 
the flag, and carried off the supplies. These supplies were later 
sent to Bunker Hill just in time for use by the patriots in that 
battle. "" J^'or the first time in American history, the British 
flag was torn down in armed rebellion." 

180. The Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. 
General Gage, seeing the warlike feeling of the people, began 
to erect fortifications around Boston. The colonists collected 
ammunition and trained soldiers. Twenty thousand " minute 
men," citizens ready for duty at a minute's notice, were 
enrolled. Cieneral Gage heard of these preparations, and as 
he learned that a large quantity of military supplies had been 
gathered at Concord, sent a force of eight hundred regulars 
to seize these supplies. They were ordered to go by way 
of Lexington and arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock, 
who were visiting there. The scheme was discovered, and by 
the aid of lanterns hung in the belfry of the Old North 
Church Paul Revere learned of the route of the troops. He 
rode furiously forward, warning the inhabitants and also Adams 
and Hancock, who fled. When the British troops reached 
Lexington in the early morning (April 19, 1775), they saw 
the minute men drawn up on the Common to oppose them. 
" Disperse, you rebels ! " shouted Pitcairn, the British com- 
mander, and on their refusal to do so, he ordered his soldiers 



i8o 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



to fire. Eight of the minute men fell dead and ten were 
wounded. From Lexington the British marched to Concord, 
where they again met the minute men, who " fired the shot 
heard round the world." 1 The English were repulsed. After 

destroying what few military 
stores they could find, they 
began the retreat to Boston. 
But the journey was a diffi- 
cult one. On every side the 
minute men flocked in and 
poured a deadly fire on the 
retreating British. Man after 
man fell from the ranks and 
had not a fresh body of 
twelve hundred men met 
them at Lexington, the entire 
command would probably 
have been destroyed. 

181. Ethan Allen at Ticon- 
deroga, May lo, 1775. On 
the shores of Lake Cham- 
plain, guarding the route to 
Canada, were two forts, Ti- 
conderoga and Crown Point. 
They were well supplied with 
all kinds of military stores, but were feebly garrisoned. Ethan 
Allen, with a band of vigorous youths called the Green Moun- 
tain Boys, resolved to surprise and capture the forts. On the 
night of May 9 he crossed Lake Champlain in the darkness 
with eighty-three followers, among them being Benedict Arnold. 




OLD NORTH CHURCH IN BOSTON 



1 Emerson has immortalized this battle by his famous lines 
" By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 
Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood. 
And fired the shot heard round the world." 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



iSi 



At daybreak he appeared before the fort, rushed into the 
quarters of the commandant, and demanded the surrender of the 
fort. " In whose name? " asked the bewildered commandant. 
" In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental 
Congress ! " shouted Allen. The fort surrendered, and two 
days later Crown Point, with its immense military supplies, fell. 

The patriots now controlled 

Lake Champlain and Lake 
George and the route between 
New York and Canada. 

182. Second Continental Con- 
gress, 1775. George Washing- 
ton, Commander in Chief. The 
Second Continental Congress 
met at Philadelphia, May 10, 
1775, the day of the surrender 
of Ticonderoga, For the next 
six years it was the central gov- 
erning body of the nation.^ 
The most important act per- 
formed by this Congress was the 
appointment (June 15, I775), i-ni.w .aluc.n 
by unanimous vote, of George 

Washington as commander in chief of the Continental army. 

183. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. In the mean- 
time stirring events were taking place in Boston. General Gage, 
the British commander, had been joined by reenforcements 
and now had ten thousand men. He therefore decided to 
seize Bunker Hill, which overlooked the harbor and his camps. 
The Americans under Prescott also recognized the value of 
the position, and on the night of June 16 quietly seized the 





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• While the First Continental Congress was merely an advisory body, the 
Second Continental Congress gradually took to itself the powers of sovereignty. 
It assumed the defense of the colonies, raised armies, directed foreign affairs, 
and issued money for the troops. 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



hill and threw up intrenchments. When the surprised British 
saw the heights occupied by colonial troops, they at once pre- 
pared to assault them. The British column moved up the hill. 
As the Americans had very little powder they were ordered 
not to fire till they saw the whites of the eyes of the enemy. 
They waited, and at the signal, in a blaze of musketry, the 
Americans with deadly aim swept the British line away. 

A second line came up and under 
the deadly aim of the colonists was cut 
to pieces. A third time the British 
charged, and as the Americans had no 
powder left they were compelled to 
withdraw. The British loss was more 
than one thousand, the American less 
than half that number. While the 
Americans were compelled to retreat, 
the battle was of the greatest benefit to 
them, for it showed the w6rld that the 
colonists could and would fight to the 
end for their liberties. 

184. Expedition against Quebec, 1775. 
Washington soon arrived in Cambridge 
and took command of the army, which 
numbered about sixteen thousand men. 
It was decided to send an expedition against Quebec, and the 
command was given to Richard Montgomery. He was ordered 
to march from Ticonderoga and, after capturing Montreal, to 
move eastward against Quebec. Another force, under Bene- 
dict Arnold, was sent through Maine to join Montgomery. 
Arnold's soldiers suffered fearful hardships in the Maine 
woods, but he and his brave men pushed onward. At last they 
reached Quebec, where Montgomery, who had taken Montreal, 
met them. On December 31, 1775, they attacked the strongest 
fortification in America and would, perhaps, have captured the 
city had not the brave Montgomery fallen mortally wounded. 



BUNKER HILL MONUMENT 




ON THE WAV TO THE FRONT IN /O 



THE PERIOD OE THE REVOLUTION 



183 



The expedition failecV and the soldiers returned in the follow- 
ing spring to Crown Point. It had important results, however. 
It drew to Canada soldiers that Howe had expected, and 
divided his troops. This prevented him from opening his 
campaign against New York until August, 1776. 

Congress now determined to win the Canadians if possible 
from the British allegiance, and to that end resolved {Feb- 
ruary 15, 1776) to send to Canada an embassy composed 
of Benjamin Frank- 
lin, Samuel Chase, 
Charles Carroll of 
Carrollton, and Rev- 
erend John Carroll, 
later the first Catho- 
lic Bishop in Amer- 
ica. The mission 
was not successful, 
for the bitter at- 
tacks made upon the 
Quebec Act and the 
intolerant laws of 

the colonies respecting religion led the Canadians to expect fairer 
treatment from England than from the American colonists. 

185. The Evacuation of Boston, March 17, 1776. Victory 
at Fort Moultrie. Washington, while drilling his raw troops, 
was tightening the chain of soldiery around Boston. Seeing 
the advantage of holding Dorchester Heights, which over- 
looked the city, he suddenly seized the hill (March 4, 1776) 
and during the darkness of night threw up earthworks. In the 
morning the British saw the Americans above them, with their 
cannon firmly planted to sweep their camp as well as their 
ships. Fearing to attack the intrenched colonists, they sailed 
away March 17, with all their troops, to Halifax. They took 

1 Richard Montgomery was born in Ireland, December 2, 1736. A tablet 
on the rocks at Quebec marks the spot where he fell. 




SIEGE OF BOSTON 



1 84 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



with them nine hundred Loyalists, or Tories/ a name given to 
those who preferred to remain subject to the king of England. 
" It was," says Edmund Burke, " more like the departure of a 
people than the retreat of an army." Three months later the 

English fleet, under Sir 
Henry Clinton, appeared 
off Charleston harbor, 
where Colonel Moultrie, 
with his brave troops, had 
built a fortress of pal- 
metto logs on Sullivan's 
Island. The British at- 
tacked with land forces, 
while their ships opened 
a heavy fire on the fort 
(June 28, 1776). The 
British troops were cut 
to pieces, while their 
vessels were so badly 
damaged that only one of 
the whole fleet escaped 
unharmed. While the 
battle was raging, the 
flag shaft was broken 
and fell outside the breastworks. Sergeant Jasper leaped over 
the walls and, amid the flying bullets, planted the flag 
of South Carolina again upon the ramparts. The fort was 
now named Fort Moultrie in honor of its brave commander. 

^ The Loyalists maintained that the grievances of the colonists were not 
sufficient to cause a separation from Great Britain. They were most numerous 
in New York and Pennsylvania and comprised large numbers of the aristoc- 
racy or wealthy citizens and the professional classes. After the Declaration 
of Independence those who remained Loyalists were generally looked upon 
as traitors, and severe laws in all the states were enacted to imprison them 
and confiscate their property. Many, therefore, fled to Nova Scotia and England. 
The Loyalists were frequently called Tories, because that was the party in 
England that supported the king. 




SERGEANT JASPER SAVES THE FLAG 



THE PERIOD OF J'llE REVULL' ri(JN 185 

Clinton placed his men on transports and sailed with them 
back to New York, where he was welcomed by the Tories. 

186. Declaration of Independence. In the meantime Con- 
gress saw that an absolute separation from Great Britain was 
inevitable,^ and steps were now taken to that end. Ameri- 
can ports were opened for free trade with all nations except 
Great Britain. Measures were at once taken to disarm the 
Loyalists. 

On May 15, 1776, Congress decided to suppress every kind 
of authority under the crown, and the colonies were asked to 
make for themselves new state governments. Nine states at 
once drew up new constitutions."-^ On June 7 Richard Henr)' 
Lee offered in Congress this resolution : " Rcsolird, That these 
United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- 
pendent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to 
the British Crown ; and that all political connection between 
them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally 
dissolved." 

The motion was seconded by John Adams, and a committee 
of five, with Thomas Jefferson as chairman, was appointed to 

^ A pamphlet by Thomas Paine, called " Common .Sense," was issued (Janu- 
ary, 1776) with the approval of P'ranklin, Samuel Adams, and Dr. Benjamin Rush. 
This pamphlet boldly declared that the time had come for a separation from 
Great Britain. The writer maintained that it was absurd for a vast continent 
like America to be ruled by a little island three thousand miles away. He boldly 
attacked even the idea of rule by kings. " Common Sense " was " a firebrand," 
says Van Tyne (" American Revolution," p. 61), "which set aflame the ready 
political material in America. It said what many men were thinking but had 
no words to express." Over one hundred thousand copies were sold, and it 
paved the way for the Declaration of Independence. 

- With few exceptions each of these new state constitutions had as a pre- 
amble a " bill of rights," which declared that the government established 
under it could not refuse freedom of speech, right of trial by jury, or freedom 
of worship. Provision was made for a governor, legislature, and judges. Only 
taxpayers or property holders could vote, and, contrary to the spirit of the 
" bill of rights " itself, belief in certain religious faiths would prevent a man 
from either voting or holding office. This is especially true in regard to the 
Catholics, who could not. for instance, be members of the House of Repre- 
sentatives in \ew Hampshire, Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North 
Carolina, or Georgia. 



1 86 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



^.^^T 



draw up the declaration. ^ Action was postponed for three 
weeks to learn the opinion of the colonies. On July 2 it was 
carried by the vote of all the states except New York. It 

received, therefore, the votes of 
twelve states. On July 4 the 
Declaration of Independence, 
the immortal document written 
by Jefferson, was adopted by 
Congress, and the colonists "with 
a firm reliance on the protection 
of Divine Providence " pledged 
to each other their lives, fortunes, 
and sacred honor.^ The colo- 
nies, now the United States of 
America, were declared to be 
absolved from all allegiance to 
the British Crown. 

The joy of the people at the 
news of the adoption of the 
Declaration of Independence 
was unbounded. It was read to Washington's army and in all 
the cities and towns throughout the colonies. Bells were rung 
and bonfires lighted ; in Philadelphia the royal arms in the 
room where Congress was sitting were cast out, and the great 




CHARLES CARROLL OF 
CARROLLTON 



^ The five members were Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John 
Adams, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. Jefferson wrote the entire 
Declaration, and it was adopted virtually as he presented it except a clause 
denouncing the slave trade. The Declaration was adopted July 4, 1776, but it 
was not signed until almost a month later (August 2). 

'■^ One of the signers was Charles Carroll from Maryland. The story that 
someone remarked that there were many Carrolls in Maryland and that he 
added the words "of Carrollton" that he might bear the full responsibility of 
his act has no historic basis, as that was his usual way of signing his name. 
Charles Carroll was born in Annapolis, September 19, 1737, and was educated 
abroad. On his return to this country he took up the fight against the taxation 
of the people for the Church of England. In 1776 he represented Maryland 
in the Continental Congress. He was the last surviving signer of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. He died in Baltimore, November 14, 1832. 




INDEHKNIJEXCK HALL 



187 



188 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

bell rang forth joyfully ; in New York the gilded leaden statue 
of George III which stood on Bowling Green was pulled down 
and melted into bullets.^ 

187. The Articles of Confederation. The Continental Con- 
gress in jthe meantime had set to work to draw up a form of 
government which would join together all the new states in a 
firm bond of union. This new form of government was proposed 
in June, 1776, and was called the Articles of Confederation. 

So great was the opposition to certain features of the 
Articles that they were not finally ratified until 1781. The 
Continental Congress in the meantime carried on the war 
merely by the common consent of the various states. 

188. Plan of the British. Battle of Long Island, August 27, 
1776. At the departure of the British from Boston, Washington 
believed they intended to strike New York, capture the Hud- 
son, and thus cut off New England from the other colonies. 
Washington was right in his judgment, for early in July, 
1776, a few days after the Declaration of Independence was 
proclaimed. General Howe arrived with twenty-five thousand 
men and encamped on Staten Island. His brother, Lord 
Howe, who had been made admiral by the British government, 
arrived on July 12. General Putnam, with nine thousand 
Americans, was intrenched on Brooklyn Heights, a point 
which overlooked and commanded New York City. General 

1 The following digest has been given for the causes of the Revolutionary 
War : 

" I. The independent spirit of the colonists. 

a. They believed in the right to think as they pleased. 

/'. They had sacrificed much for the sake of freedom. 

c. They had founded the colonies unassisted. 

II. The military spirit aroused by the French and Indian War. 

a. Many had been trained to fight by British officers. 

b. The colonists found they were as brave as, and were better marks- 

men than, the regular British soldiers. 

III. British oppression. 

a. The Navigation Acts. 

b. The Stamp Act. 

c. The tea tax." 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 189 

Sullivan guarded, with four thousand men, the approaches to 
the Heights, Lord Howe attacked the American forces, and 
the battle of Long Island was fiercely fought* (August 27, 1776). 
The Americans, outnumbered by the British five to one, were 
defeated with heavy loss, General Sullivan being taken prisoner. 
The British, aided by their war vessels, now endeavored to 
hem in the Americans by land and sea. The position of the 
patriots was indeed perilous, when fortunately a heavy fog fell 
over Long Island and the waters of the harbor. Washington 
took advantage of it and with the utmost secrecy removed his 
troops to the mainland of New York City.^ 

189. Howe's Offer of Peace. Lord Howe now endeavored to 
establish peace between the new states and England. He bore, 
he said, both the sword and the olive branch. He sent a letter 
to General Washington, addressed to George Washington, Esq., 
which Washington refused to receive, as Lord Howe gave him 
no official military title. Howe, thereupon, asked Congress to 
send a committee to treat of peace with him. Adams, Rutledge, 
and Franklin were sent as the committee. Howe promised 
full redress for all grievances and full pardon for all offenses 
if the states would return to their former allegiance to Great 
Britain. The request was refused by the committee. The L^nited 
States was free, they declared, and resolved to remain so. 

190. The British occupy New York. Washington retreats 
Northward. In a few days the British crossed over from Long 
Island '-^ to the city of New York and occupied it. Washington 
had taken a position at Harlem Heights, where Howe attacked 
him (September 16, 1776) but was repulsed. 

1 At the first embarkation of the American troops the wife of a Tory sent 
her negro servant to inform the British. He met a German sentinel who could 
not understand him and locked him up as a suspicious character. In the morn- 
ing a British officer examined him, and hearing his story, rushed off to examine 
the American outposts. The army had disappeared, and the last boats were 
then halfway across to New York. 

- To learn the plans of the British, Captain Nathan Hale went into their 
lines. He was recognized and hanged as a spy. His last words were, " I only 
regret I have but one life to lose for mv country." 



IQO 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Hoping to attack Washington in a less advantageous posi- 
tion, Howe moved into Westchester and again attacked the 
patriots at White Plains (October 28, 1776), gaining a slight 
victory. Washington, thereupon, fell back to the intrenched 
camp at Northcastle and later entered New Jersey, 




THE WAR IN NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, AND NEW JERSEY 



Howe now turned his attention to Fort Washington, which 
commanded the Hudson River. Washington had advised the 
abandonment of the fort to save its military stores and the 
three thousand troops in its garrison. General Greene, how- 
ever, who was in command, believed he could hold it success- 
fully. On November 16 the British attacked and took it after 
a heroic resistance on the part of the patriots, who lost as 
prisoners almost the entire garrison. 

191. Battle of Lake Champlain. In the meantime the British 
under Carleton were moving with their army and boats from 



THE KEVOLUTION 

THE MIDDLE STATES 

SCALE OF MILES 




THE PERK)]) OE THE REVOLUTION 191 

Canada. Benedict Arnold fell back with his forces as Carleton 
drove him southward. Reaching Lake Champlain, Arnold 
hastily constructed eighteen boats and attacked (October 1 1 , 
1776) Carleton's fleet off Valcour Island. Though his boats 
were finally lost, Arnold delayed Carleton's progress and reached 
Ticonderoga in safety. When Carleton arrived before the fort, 
he doubted his ability to take it and returned to Canada. ^ 

192. Retreat across New Jersey. At the capture of Fort 
Washington, Cicncral Washington was at Pfackensack on the 
west side of the Hudson with seven thousand men. General 
Charles Lee, with an equal number of men, was on the east 
side of the Hudson at Northcastle. Washington ordered Lee 
to cross the river, join forces with him, and face the enemy 
with the full strength of the army. Lee, hoping by a brilliant 
stroke to be raised to the supreme command, disobeyed and 
marched his troops slowly to Morristown. 

Washington was therefore compelled to retreat through 
New Jersey and to cross the Delaware. Cornwallis, in full 
pursuit, reached this river as the Americans landed on the 
opposite side. Not a boat could be found to transport the 
British troops, Washington having captured every boat for 
seventy miles up and down the river. With keen disappoint- 
ment Cornwallis was compelled to encamp until he could cross 
the river on the ice. In the meantime General Lee had been 
captured by the British. General Sullivan assumed command 
of the troops at Morristown and immediately pushed on to 
join Washington. 

193. Battle of Trenton, December 25, 1776. Washington 
now determined to strike a decisive bk)w. Three regiments 
of Hessians under Colonel Rail were stationed at Trenton. 

^ " This strange conduct delayed the campaign of the following year, and 
thus Arnold's skill and wonderful energy were rewarded. But for this delay 
Burgoyne would have succeeded, there would have been no surrender at Sara- 
toga, and there probably would have been no F"rench alliance. This seemingly 
petty conflict set going vast forces which soon involved in war half the civilized 
nations of the world." — Van Tyne, " American Revolution," p. iiS 



192 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

On Christmas night, while the Hessians^ were celebrating 
the holiday, Washington crossed the Delaware, with two thou- 
sand five hundred men, through the floating ice. It was bitterly 
cold, and a blinding snowstorm was raging. After innumerable 
difficulties he reached the east bank and marched nine miles 
to Trenton, where he fell upon the Hessians and completely 
routed them. One thousand men and thirty-two pfficers were 
taken prisoners. Colonel Rail was mortally wounded. The 
Americans lost only four men. With his prisoners and military 
stores Washington now recrossed' the Delaware. 

194. Robert Morris's Great Aid. Distress of the Troops. 
The brilliant victory at Trenton aroused new courage in the 
hearts of all the patriots. The American troops now saw the 
people everywhere pulling down the red rags which had been 
fastened to their doors to secure British good will and pro- 
tection. Hessians were marched through the streets of Phila- 
delphia to convince the people of the victory, and a Hessian 
flag was sent to Congress at Baltimore. The rejoicings of the 
people were unbounded. Congress bestowed on Washington 
(December 27) almost unlimited military power for a period 
of six months, that he might raise and maintain a larger 
army. This was indeed necessary, for new dangers now beset 
the patriot army. The enlistments of many of the regiments 
were expiring, and they desired to return home. They had 
been without suitable clothing for months, while the paper 
money was constantly falling in value, till it becarri'e practically 
worthless. Washington saw it was necessary to have " hard " 
money. He wrote to his friend Robert Morris in Philadelphia 
to help him, — "If you could possibly collect a sum, if it were 
but one hundred and fifty pounds, it would be of service." 

1 The king of England, not being able to secure troops in his own country 
to wage war in America, sought to purchase them in Europe. He asked Russia 
to sell him twenty thousand men, but Russia declined. At length the prince 
of Hesse-Cassel and other German princes sold him thirty thousand troops. 
Since that time the word Hessian has been a term of contempt. Nothing 
enraged the Americans more against George III than this action. 



THE PERIOD ()!• THE REVOLUTION 193 

On New Year's morning Morris went from door to door in 
Philadelphia, waking up his friends and asking for money. 
By noon he had raised fifty thousand dollars, which he sent to 
Washington. The soldiers reenlisted, and the name of Robert 
Morris deserves a place among the saviors of his country. 

195. Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777. Cornwallis, 
hearing of the disaster at Trenton, now rushed on with eight 
thousand men to attack Washington, who had again crossed 
the Delaware. The Americans had taken a position near 
Trenton on the south bank of a small stream — the Assanpink 
— that flowed into the Delaware. Cornwallis arrived late in 
the day and postponed his attack until the next morning. 
With the Delaware full of floating ice, Washington's retreat 
was cut off and his position was extremely dangerous. Corn- 
wallis, viewing the situation, exclaimed with jov, "At last we 
have run down the old fox and we will bag him in the morn- 
ing." But Washington did not intend to be caught. While 
his men were apparently throwing up intrenchments, and the 
camp fires were burning brightly, Washington slipped up the 
little creek, passed behind Cornwallis, and fell on his rear 
guard at Princeton. The roar of cannon in his rear awoke 
Cornwallis to his danger. The British were defeated (January 3, 
1777). Washington took a strong position at Morristown 
Heights, and as this threatened his line of supplies, Cornwallis 
ordered a general retreat of the British to New York, 

Philadelphia was safe, and Washington spent the winter un- 
disturbed at Morristown. The brilliant military skill shown by 
Washington excited the greatest admiration in Europe. Many 
nations, especially the P^rench, now desired to give secret or 
open aid to the struggling patriots. A young nobleman of 
France, Marquis de Lafayette, seeking in vain to get help from 
his country, secretly fitted out a ship at his own expense and 
came to America to join the forces of Washington without pay. 
His historic words were, " When first I heard of American 
independence mv heart was enlisted ! " 



194 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



At this time a number of German and Polish officers arrived 
to aid the patriot cause ; among them were Baron de Kalb,^ 
Baron von Steuben,^ Pulaski/^ and Kosciuszko.^ Von Steuben 
rendered very valuable service in drilling the American troops. 

196. The British Plan of 
Campaign. The British plan 
of campaign for 1777 was as 
follows : 

1. General Howe was to 
seize the city of Philadelphia, 
the capital of the "rebel govern- 
ment," and thereafter move 
northward to join his forces 
with those of General Burgoyne. 

2. General Burgoyne, with 
nine thousand men, was to 
come down from Canada, open- 
ing the route to the Hudson, 
thus completely cutting off 

PULASKI New England from the other 

colonies. 
3. Colonel St. Leger, with two thousand men, was ordered to 
ascend the St. Lawrence to Oswego and then, coming down the 
Mohawk valley, to take Fort Stanwix with the aid of the Iroquois 
Indians and the Tories. When this had been done, he was 
expected to march eastward and join Burgoyne at Albany. 




1 Ue Kalb was born in Germany and later served in the French army. 
Coming to America in 1777, he was appointed a major general by Congress, 
and was killed, fighting bravely, in the battle of Camden. 

- Von Steuben was born in Prussia. At the close of the Revolutionary War 
he received from Congress a large grant of land in New York and remained 
in America until his death (1794). 

2 Casimir Tulaski was born in Poland. He served on Washington's staff 
and fought bravely at Brandywine and Germantown. While in command of the 
celebrated Pulaski's legion he fell, gallantly fighting, before Savannah in 1779. 

* Thaddeus Kosciuszko was a native of Poland and was an engineer of 
great skill. He erected the fortifications of West Point. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 195 

197. Battle of Brandywine. To carry out his part of the cam- 
paign, Howe intended to march across New Jersey and, captur- 
ing Philadelphia, turn northward to aid Burgoyne. Washington 
prevented this movement, and Howe decided to go by water 
to Philadelphia. On July 23, with eighteen thf)usand men, 
he sailed from New York and a week later appeared off the 
entrance to Delaware Bay. Signal fires along the coast told the 
patriots the position of the fleet. Washington marched quickly 
south with eleven thousand troops. Howe did not sail up Dela- 
ware Bay, but put again to sea and appeared next at the mouth 
of Chesapeake Bay. Washington marched to Wilmington 
(Delaware), and Howe, landing his troops, hurried to meet 
him. They met at Chadd's Ford on the Brandywine River 
(September 11, 1777). The Americans were defeated and 
driven back. 

198. Howe takes Philadelphia. Battle of Germantown, 
October 4, 1777. Howe marched on Philadelphia, which he 
entered two weeks later. Washington, although driven back, 
had succeeded in delaying Howe so long that cooperation with 
Burgoyne was impossible. Washington gave the British no 
peace. A short time later (October 4, 1777) he made an attack 
on their camp at Germantown, a suburb of the city of Phila- 
delphia. In a dense fog two of our divisions fired at each 
other. In consequence Washington was defeated and went 
into winter quarters at \'alley P'orge.^ General Howe went into 
winter quarters at Philadelphia. 

1 The sufferings of the American army at \'al!ey Forge were indescribable. 
The soldiers in their rude huts were exposed to the severe winter weather 
and were compelled, many of them, to sleep on the frozen earth. They were 
without suitable clothing, many being barefooted. Their food was flour mi.xed 
with water. Near-by farmers supplied the British in Philadelphia with ample 
provisions, while they left the patriotic .\merican soldiers to starve. Agents 
of the British were constantly trying to bribe the soldiers to leave the patriot 
army and return to the king. A conspiracy was formed against Washington 
to displace him from his command. From its leader it was called the Conicay 
Cabal. It failed in its purpose, and Washington rose higher than ever in the 
esteem of his countrymen. 



196 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



199. Burgoyne's Expedition. Battle of Bennington. Let us see 

how Burgoyne had fared in the meantime. Leaving Montreal in 
June on his eventful march southward with an army of eight 
thousand men, composed of English, Hessians, and Indians, and 
a splendid train of artillery, he quickly captured forts Crown Point 
and Ticonderoga. When King George heard that the powerful 

fortress of Ticon- 
deroga had fallen, 
he exclaimed with 
great glee, "I have 
beat all the Amer- 
icans." He was 
soon to be griev- 
ously undeceived. 
Burgoyne pushed 
on towards Fort 
Edward. General 
Philip Schuyler, in 
command of the 
American forces, 
made his journey 
a difficult one. By 
burning bridges, 
felling trees across 
the paths and high- 
ways, choking up the rivers, and carrying off all the cattle, 
horses, and foodstuffs, Schuyler caused Burgoyne so much delay 
that he did not reach Fort Edward until the latter part of July 
— twenty-four days to march twenty-six miles. 

Hearing that the Americans had collected large military and 
other stores at Bennington, in the present state of Vermont, 
Burgoyne dispatched one thousand men under Colonel Baum 
to seize them. The brave New Hampshire militia and Green 
Mountain Boys, under Colonel John Stark, were waiting for 
them. On the i6th of August, 1777, the Americans met the 




BURGOYNE S EXPEDITION 



THE I'ERIOU OF THE REVOLUTION 



197 



British. When Stark saw the enemy, he cried : " See, men ! 
There are the redcoats ! We must beat them to-day, or Molly 
Stark is a widow." The patriots were successful and took 
about seven hundred prisoners. The American loss was only 
fifty-six men, killed and wounded. This victory enabled the 
patriots to get in the rear of Burgoyne and cut off his sup- 
plies from Canada. Thousands of armed farmers now poured 
in from all parts of New England to aid the patriot cause. 

200. Fort Stan- 
wix. Battle of "^ « i » * 

Oriskany. In the 
meantime St. Leger 
had landed at Os- 
wego and, pushing 
eastward, besieged 
Fort Stanwix, or 
Fort Schuyler as it 
was at this time 
called. This fort 
was the site of the 
present city of 
Rome, New York. 
General Nicholas 
Herkimer, with 

eight hundred militia — largely German settlers — marched to 
the aid of Fort Stanwix. At Oriskany, a few miles west of the 
present city of Utica, Herkimer was attacked by a force made up 
of Mohawk Indians under Brant and Tories under Johnson and 
Butler. A desperate battle followed (August 6, 1777) in which 
the Indians and Tories were finally defeated. Herkimer, how- 
ever, was fatally wounded. After St. Leger had been besieging 
Fort Stanwix for three days, the patriots in the fort suddenly 
rushed out and captured five British flags, as well as arms and 
provisions. They hoisted these flags upside down over the ram- 
parts, and above them raised a flag made of a piece of blue jacket. 




-%fi^' 



A" 



(;i:.\i:kal herkimer at okiskaxv 




The Red Ensign, or Meteor Flag, was 
the commercial flag of England in 1775. 
It consisted of a red field, a blue canton, 
the red cross of St. George of England, 
and the white cross of St. Andrew of 
Scotland. When Ireland was joined to 
the Union in iSoi, the cross of St. Pat- 
rick was added, making the Union Jack 
of the present day. 

The American colonists in 1775 laid 
six white stripes on the red field of the 
Meteor Flag, making thirteen stripes to 
represent the colonies. The canton was 
retained to represent the empire. This 
flag was raised by Washington at Cam- 
bridge, January 2, 1776. It was the first 
distinctive flag representing colonial 



On June 14, 1777, Congress removed 
the crosses from the canton and replaced 
them by a circle of thirteen white stars. 
Congress resolved "that the flag of the 
United States be thirteen stripes, alter- 
nate red and white ; that the union be 
thirteen stars, white on a blue field, rep- 
resenting a new constellation." This flag 
was probably raised for the first time at 
Fort Stanwix, New York, August 3, 1777. 

At first a new stripe and a new star were 
added for each new state. It was seen, 
however, that this would make the flag 
too large, and in 18 18 Congress voted to 
return to thirteen stripes but to add a new 
star for each new state. The additional 
star is added on the fourth of July next suc- 
ceeding the admission of the new state. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLAG 



198 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



199 



a white shirt, and some red flannel. In June Congress had 
adopted as our national flag the Stars and Stripes, and at Fort 
Stanwix it was for the first time thrown to the breeze. In the 
meantime General Schuyler had heard of the distress of the fort 
and sent Benedict Arnold with a force to relieve it.^ On the 



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SURRENDER OF BURGOVNE 

approach of Arnold, St. Leger fled to Oswego, abandoning his tents 
and munitions, and another blow was given to Burgoyne's hopes. 
201. Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17, 1777. Schuyler 
was now removed from the command, and Gates took his 
place. Burgoyne saw the enemy drawing around him, while 

1 Arnold resorted to a stratagem to frighten the Indians who were with 
St. Leger. A half-witted Tory boy who had been condemned to death as a 
spy was promised his life if he would go to the British camp and report the 
advance of a large body of Americans. Filling his coat with bullet holes, he 
rushed headlong among St. Leger's Indians. When asked how many Ameri- 
cans were coming, he pointed to the leaves of the trees. The Indians, thor- 
oughly terrified, threw down their arms and, after sacking the camp, scattered 
through the woods in all directions. During St. Leger's retreat these Indians, 
his former allies, hung on the flanks of his army, killing and plundering the 
British with true savage glee. 



200 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

his supplies became scarcer every day. His Indian allies de- 
serted him, and he heard nothing from General Howe, who, 
he expected, was on the way north up the Hudson to aid him. 
He resolved, therefore, to attack the Americans, and a battle was 
fought at Bemis Heights near Saratoga, September 19, 1777. 
The result of the battle was indecisive, but it was in effect 
a victory for the Americans, as Burgoyne never advanced 
further southward. 

On October 7 Burgoyne again attacked the Americans, but 
was badly defeated. Benedict Arnold fought bravely here, his 
leg being shattered by a musket ball. Giving up all hope of 
assistance from Howe, hemmed in on all sides, Burgoyne sur- 
rendered, at Saratoga, October 17, 1777, his whole army of six 
thousand men and his military stores. The battle of Saratoga 
is considered to be one of the decisive battles of the world. ^ 
It had most important results for the American cause : 

1. It completely destroyed the English plan of the war. 

2. It prevented control by the English of the Hudson River 
and the state of New York. 

3; It weakened the prestige of the English with the Iroquois 
confederacy. 

4. It secured the invaluable aid of Erance with its army 
and navy .2 

5. It encouraged Erance and Spain, the enemies of England 
in Europe, to open warfare, thereby weakening British power 
in America. 

1 " No military event can be said to have exercised more important influ- 
ence on the future fortunes of mankind than the complete defeat of Burgoyne's 
expedition in 1777 ; a defeat which rescued the revolted colonies from certain 
subjection and which, by inducing the courts of France and Spain to attack 
England in their behalf, insured the independence of the United States." — 
Creasy, '" Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World" 

- As early as May, 1776, France had sent two hundred thousand dollars to 
aid the American cause and in July of the same year merchandise to the 
value of almost six hundred thousand dollars. At the same time she allowed 
American privateers to fit out in her ports. Spain also secretly loaned money 
and furnished supplies in great quantities to the American colonists. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 201 

6. By the capture of an entire English army the enthusiasm 
of the colonists was aroused everywhere. 

7. It induced the English to seek once more reconciliation 
with the United States.^ 

202. The French Alliance, 1778. The British Retreat to 
Philadelphia. Battle of Monmouth. In the autumn of 1776 
Congress had sent a commission, of which Benjamin Franklin 
was a member, to Paris to seek the aid of the king of France. 
For a long time the commission was unsuccessful, as the finances 
of France were at this time in a very low condition and she 
did not wish war with England. The surrender of Burgoyne 
and the renewed attempts by the king of England at reconcil- 
iation with the revolted colonies induced the king of France 
to sign a treaty, February 6, 1778. By this treaty the Americans 
were bound to accept no terms of peace until the British 
government should recognize the independence of the United 
States. The United States and France agreed that neither 
should make peace without the consent of the other. Spain, 
in 1779, ^rid Holland, in 1780, joined France and declared war 
on England. A French fleet was dispatched to our assistance. 
Lord Howe had been superseded in the command of the British 
by Sir Henry Clinton. Hearing of the approach of the French 
fleet, Clinton abandoned Philadelphia (June 18, 1778) and 
marched to New York. Washington pressed behind him and 
overtook the British rear guard at Monmouth, where he attacked 

1 On February 17, 1778, Lord North proposed in Parliament a bill of recon- 
ciliation, granting to the former colonies everything they asked except inde- 
pendence. Free pardon was offered to all ; every act of Parliament passed 
after 1763 to which objection had been raised was repealed; every duty, tax, 
or assessment whatever, except for the usual regulation of commerce, that had 
been levied in the colonies was annulled. It was provided that all money 
collected in the colonies should be expended in the colonies. Commissioners 
were sent to America to put these proposals into effect at once. Had these 
laws been passed earlier, there is little doubt that the colonies would have 
accepted them, but Congress now refused " to consider propositions so 
derogatory to the honor of an independent nation." The failure of these 
peace negotiations led to a change in warfare. From this time the war was 
waged with bitter severity. 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



it, June 28, 1778. At the moment of victory Charles Lee,^ 
who had been exchanged and had again received a command, 
ordered a disgraceful retreat. Washington fortunately came 
up in time to save his army, and the British, having lost two 
thousand men, hurried on to New York.^ 

203. Military Operations at Newport. Capture of Stony- 
Point. Washington now hoped to take New York City with 

the aid of the French ships 
under Count d'Estaing, but the 
sand bars at the entrance to 
the harbor prevented their ap- 
proach. He dispatched the 
fleet, therefore, to attack New- 
port, which was held by the 
British. A severe storm scat- 
tered the French vessels and 
they withdrew for repairs to 
Boston. The British later 
abandoned Newport. New York 
City was the only point north 
of Virginia held by them until 
the war closed. 

Hoping to draw General 
Washington away from New 
York, Clinton sent expeditions of Tories to ravage unprotected 
places. Martha's Vineyard and New Bedford .-were swept by 
fire ; Portsmouth and Norfolk, in Virginia, were burned and the 
defenseless citizens murdered. In Connecticut the towns of 

1 For his cowardice or treachery in this battle Lee was tried by court- 
martial and suspended from the army. For insulting Washington he was later 
expelled, and died in obscurity. 

2 While carrying water to the tired soldiers Molly Pitcher saw her husband 
shot down at his cannon. She at once took his place and loaded and fired the 
gun during the battle. Washington, in recognition of her bravery, made her' 
a lieutenant, and Congress gave her half pay for life. She died in 1832, and 
her grave at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, is marked by a monument erected by a 
grateful people in her honor. 




GENERAL ANTHUNV WAYNE 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 203 

New Haven, Fairfield, and Xorvvalk were destroyed. These 
raids were marked with a trail of blood and cruelty resembling 
more the warfare of savages than of civilized men. 

Washington, however, had other plans in view. He "quietly 
sent (July, 1779) General Anthony Wayne — called "Mad 
Anthony " because of his bravery — up the Hudson to capture 
Stony Point. This was an important post in tlic river below 
West Point and had been captured by Clinton six weeks 
before. With twelve hundred men, at midnight, July 16, 
Wayne silently stole up the hill towards the fort. Before the 
garrison was aware of their presence they sprang over the out- 
works and carried all before them at the point of the bayonet. 
Wayne destroyed the fort, as he was not strong enough to hold 
it, and withdrew, taking with him all the militarv stores. 

204. Indian Warfare. The Massacres in Wyoming and 
Cherry Valleys. The Indians were now let loose on the frontier 
settlements. The Seneca tribe and a regiment of Tories, led 
by Colonel John Butler, invaded the Wyoming Valley in Penn- 
sylvania. Fighting against overwhelming numbers, the brave 
American patriots were surrounded, July 3, 1778, and defeated. 

The Indians put their captives to death with the most horrible 
tortures. The Tories rivaled in ferocity their savage allies. 
The beautiful valley was left a smoldering desert, and the 
women and children, driven to the woods, perished miserably. 

Another band of Tories and Indians, under the infamous 
Joseph Brant,^ came up the Mohawk valley and fell on Cherry 
Valley (November 10, 1778), where they put to death men, 
women, and children. Washington determined to stop these 
massacres and sent General Sullivan against the Indians, whom 
he met and overwhelmed at Newtown, on the site of the present 
city of Flmira. With fire and sword Sullivan now swept like 

1 Joseph Brant was a Mohawk Indian, who had been well educated and 
became later a missionary for the Church of England. At the outbreak of the 
Revolution he placed himself at the head of the Mohawk, as thorough a 
savage as the most bloodthirsty of his followers. With his Tory allies he 
spread death and destruction wherever he waged his inhuman warfare. 



204 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



a whirlwind through the territory of the Iroquois, utterly 
destroying forty villages. The power of the Indian confed- 
eracy was broken forever. 

205. War in the West. Western settlements had been made 
by pioneers from New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the 
Carolinas, who had pushed westward wherever a favorable 

route opened before them. The 
British government attempted 
at first to stop this westward 
movement by the Proclamation 
Line of 1763 (see sect. 144), but 
later it favored the movement, 
as it was unable to check it. 
In 1768, by the treaty of Fort 
Stanwix, the Iroquois ceded the 
lands claimed by them between 
the Ohio and the Tennessee 
rivers, throwing open to settle- 
ment Kentucky and a lafge 
part of Tennessee. Large land 
companies were formed to 
open up the territory, but the 
outbreak of the Revolution de- 
stroyed the plans. In the mean- 
time Daniel Boone had penetrated into Kentucky in 1769 and 
James Robertson had founded settlements in Tennessee. The 
Kentucky villages were attacked by the Shawnee Indians, 
When these Indians were later defeated (October 10, 1774), on 
the Great Kanawha River, they ceded (1774) all their lands 
south of the Ohio, In 1776 the Cherokee attacked the Tenn- 
essee settlements, but they were finally overcome and gave up 
the territory between the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, 

206. George Rogers Clark. Father Gibault. The British 
commander at Detroit, Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton, 
now ur^ed the Indians to a united attack on the American 




DAXIEL BOOXE 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 205 

frontier settlements.^ A young Virginian, George Rogers Clark, 
was commissioned by Patrick Henry, governor of Virginia, 
to lead an expedition into the West and seize the English 
forts north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi rivers, 
l-jiibarking (June 26, 1 7/8) at I'ort Pitt, he sailed with his force 



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CLARK S EXPEDITION 

down the river to a point forty miles above its mouth. Here he 
landed and began his perilous journey across swamps, through 
forests and thickets, at times without food or shelter. Kaskaskia 
fell into their hands (July 5, 1778), and a little later Cahokia, 
without firing a shot. Here Clark met Father Peter Gibault,- 

1 To encourage them in their murderous work, Hamilton paid the Indians 
bounties only on scalps. As they received nothing for prisoners, they took none. 

- Father Gibault himself, like Clark, had reason to complain of his later 
treatment. " At one time," says Roosevelt, " he was suffering from poverty, 
due to his loyal friendship to the Americans ; for he had advanced Clark's 
troops both goods and peltries for which he had never received payment. In 
a petition to Congress he showed how this failure to repay him had reduced 
him to want." " Next to Clark and Vigo," says Judge John Law, " the United 
.States are more indebted to Father Gibault for the accession of the states com- 
prised in what was the original Northwest Territory than to any other man." 
Fran9ois Vigo was an Italian who aided Clark on many occasions. 



206 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAxN HISTORY 



the pastor of Kaskaskia, who joined himself to the American 
cause. Setting out at once for Vincennes, Father Gibault in- 
duced the French and the Cathohc Indians to yield to Clark, 
who, in consequence, easily took the fort. The British later 
took the fort, but could hold it only a short time, for Clark 
marched two hundred and thirty 
^fx miles through snow and swamps, 

amid fearful hardships, and again 
captured it. This territory was an- 
nexed to Virginia and was called the 
Illinois country. This heroic march 
of Clark and the friendly offices of 
Father Gibault gave us the title to 
this section.! The Great Lakes, in- 
stead of the Ohio, became, in con- 
sequence, the southern boundary of 
British possessions at the conclusion 
of the war. 

207. War on the Ocean. Barry 
and Jones. At the outbreak of the 
W'ar the patriots were greatly ham- 
pered by the lack of a naval force. While no regular navy was 
available to destroy British shipping, private cruisers were built, 
and during the next four years did great damage to English 
vessels. These cruisers crossed the sea, hovered around the 
coasts of England, and captured in three years six hundred 
vessels. Congress, in the meantime, had appointed Esek Hop- 
kins of Rhode Island commander of a little navy of five ships, 




JOHN BARRY 



1 At this time England was at war witli Spain and planned to seize the Spanish 
settlements on the Gulf of Mexico. With the aid of a force which she intended 
to send from Canada down the Mississippi, she would control that great river 
from its source to its mouth. Before these plans could be carried out by the 
English, Galvez, the Spanish governor of New Orleans, seized Baton Rouge, 
Natchez, Mobile, and Pensacola, and completely destroyed the English plan of 
campaign. This action rendered it possible for George Rogers Clark to hold his 
conquests: The city of Galveston is named in honor of this Spanish governor. 



THE PERIOD OE THE REVOLU'I'ION 



207 



but this navy was soon destroyed or dispersed. Another attempt 
at the formation of a navy was made by the purchase of several 
merchant vessels. The command of one of these vessels, the 
Lexington, was given to Captain 
John Barr}'.^ The Lexington, 
which was named in honor of 
the hrst battle of the Revolu- 
tion, soon met and captured 
the British man-of-war Ed- 
li'ard, after a vigorous contest. 
Barry fought battles every- 
where along the coasts, inflict- 
ing severe losses on the enemy. 
In March, 1794, Captain Barry 
was placed at the head of the 
list of commanders, with the 
rank of commodore. lie has 
been called the Father of the 
American Navy. In Captain 
Barry's squadron, when it first 

set out to maintain our flag upon the sea, was John Paul 
Jones,^ a lieutenant on \\\ii Alfred. Later Jones made his name 
forever illustrious in naval annals. With three vessels he sailed 




JOllX PAUL JONKS 



^ Commodore John Barry was born in Wexford, Ireland, and came to 
America at the age of thirteen. He rapidly rose in the merchant marine and 
at twenty-five was captain of one of the finest packet ships of the day. At the 
outbreak of the Revolution he gave up the best ship in America to serve the 
'patriot cause. Lord Howe offered him command of the best frigate in 
the English navy and fifteen thousand guineas if he would join the British 
forces. Barry answered, " I have devoted myself to the cause of .America and 
not the value and command of the whole British fleet can seduce me from it." 

- John Paul Jones was born in Scotland, and entered the American service 
in 1775. ^^^ made many cruises and received for his victory over the Serapis 
a gold medal with the thanks of Congress and a gold sword from the king of 
France. After the Revolution he became a rear admiral in the Russian navy, 
and died in Paris in 1792. He was a man of remarkable courage and daring. In 
one of Jones's maneuvers during the great sea fight the British captain asked, 
" Have you struck ? " " Struck 1 " replied Jones ; " I have not begun to fight ! " 



208 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

boldly for the English coasts. His vessel, the BonJwTitvic 
Richard, had been a French merchant vessel and had been 
given to him by the king of France. Off Flamborough Head, 
a bold promontory on the east coast of England, he met a fleet 
of English merchantmen bound for the Baltic Sea under the 
conduct of two men-of-war, the Serapis and the Countess of 
Scarborough. Although the odds were against him, Jones at 
once made an attack, and after a hand-to-hand struggle cap- 
tured both vessels. He transferred his men and stores to the 
Serapis just in time, for his own vessel soon sank beneath 
the waves. 

208. The War iu the South. Savannah taken. Fall of 
Charleston. In 1778 the war was transferred to the South, the 
British hoping to capture each state in succession. Georgia 
passed first into the hands of the English through the surrender 
of Savannah (December 29, 1778) and the defeat of the Anier- 
icans at Augusta. The royal governor was again placed in 
office. The Americans under Lincoln, aided by the French 
fleet, attempted (October 9, 1779) to recapture Savannah, but 
were badly defeated. They lost one thousand men, among 
them being the gallant Polish officer Pulaski and the hero 
of Fort Moultrie, Sergeant Jasper. The French fleet sailed 
for France and Lincoln withdrew to South Carolina. Clinton 
now came down from New York by sea with eight thousand 
men and was later joined by three thousand others. Encouraged 
by their successes, they now pushed northward and surrounded 
Charleston, where Lincoln had intrenched himself. The British 
prepared to assault the city with overwhelming numbers, and 
Lincoln, seeing how hopeless his position was, surrendered 
(May, 1780) his army of three thousand men with his military 
stores. It was a fearful blow to the patriot cause.^ The British 
could now overrun South Carolina ; but the militia, under the 

1 The English statesman Horace Walpole exclaimed on hearing of the 
surrender, " We look on America as at our feet." But he was sorely mistaken, 
as events soon proved. 



THE PERIOD OE 11 IE REVOLUTION 209 

brave Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Clark, kept up an inces- 
sant warfare, striking first here, then there, until the British 
forces left the state. 

209. Battle of Camden. King's Mountain, 1780. Congress 
now placed Gates in command of the army in the South 
against the recommendation of Washington, who had no faith 
in him. He pushed into South Carolina, where the British 
under Cornvvallis were intrenched at Camden. Gates attacked 
the enemy (August 16, 1780), but was completely routed. The 
brave De Kalb was mortally wounded, and Gates saved himself 
by fieeing on horseback till he was in safety, sixty miles from 
the battlefield. This was perhaps the darkest hour of the Revo- 
lution, for the three Southern colonies were now in the hands 
of the British. Two American armies had been crushed, and 
no force apparently remained to withstand the onward march 
of the British to Virginia. 

But the patriots were not yet conquered. A short time later 
(October 7, 1780) a force of British regulars and Tories under 
General Ferguson was attacked in the highlands of South 
Carolina at a point called King's Mountain. The patriots were 
the backwoodsmen, who with deadly aim cut to pieces the British 
force. Ferguson was killed and his command annihilated. 

210. The Treason of Benedict Arnold, September 22, 1780. 
About this time a heavy blow fell on the patriot cause. Bene- 
dict Arnold, who had fought so bravely at Ticonderoga, Quebec, 
and Saratoga, formed a plot to deliver up the most important 
post in America, — West Point. Two years previously Arnold 
was in command of Philadelphia and was involved in troubles 
of various natures. He was sentenced to be reprimanded by 
Washington. Remembering Arnold's bravery and moved by 
deep pity for him, Washington's reprimand was of the mildest 
sort. Arnold was stung, however, by the disgrace and sought 
revenge. Six months later he asked Washington for the com- 
mand of West Point, and obtaining it, at once entered into 
correspondence with Clinton to betray it. Major John Andre 



210 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

was selected to carry out the details. He met Arnold at West 
Point, but on his way back^ was captured with the fatal papers 
concealed in his boots. He was tried and hanged as a spy. 
Arnold escaped to the British vessel, the Vidtiirc. He received 
for his infamy about thirty-two thousand dollars and a position 
on the staff of General Clinton. 

211. General Greene in the South. A third army was now 
raised in the South, with General Nathanael Greene ^ in com- 
mand. He immediately began a series of maneuvers that showed 
him to be the most skillful general in the American army except 
Washington. Knowing he had not a sufficient force to attack 
Cornwallis in the open field, he resolved to wear him out. With 
the aid of Daniel Morgan (the sharpshooter), William Wash- 
ington, Kosciuszko (the brave Polish engineer), Henry Lee, 
Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and other equally able officers he 
began a series of the most brilliant military operations. 

212. Battles of Cowpens, Guilford Court House, Hobkirk's 
Hill, Eutaw Springs. Morgan attacked Tarleton, who had been 
sent against him by Cornwallis at Cowpens (January 17, 1781), 
and completely destroyed his forces, thus cutting off one third 
of Cornwallis's army. That general now started in pursuit of 
Greene, who desired to lead him further and further into a 



1 While riding along the wooded road near Sleepy Hollow, Andre was 
startled by three men, who suddenly confronted him. These men were 
Paulding, Van Wart, and Williams. One of the party wore a Hessian coat, 
and Andre, mistaking him for one of the British allies, asked him if he did 
not belong to the lower, or British, party. They answered Yes, and Andre at 
once told them he was a British officer on important business. They then 
declared themselves to be Americans, and Andre's heart sank. They ordered 
him to dismount, found the papers, and led him away to the nearest military post. 
Andre offered the patriots bribes of all kinds, but they scorned them. Con- 
gress voted them a medal and a pension of two hundred dollars a year for life. 

Read the description of this locality in " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " 
in Irving's " Sketch Book." 

2 General Nathanael Greene was born in Rhode Island in 1742. During the 
Revolution he took part in the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, and 
Germantown. His wonderful campaign against Cornwallis in the South gave 
him a place in our military history second only to Washington. He died in 1786. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 211 

hostile country, far from his base of supplies. The chase was 
maintained for two hundred miles, when Greene suddenly 
turned around and fought Cornwallis at Guilford Court House 
(March 15, 1781). Greene was defeated, but Cornwallis's forces 
were so badly cut up that he turned and retreated. Greene 
now became the pursuer, but Cornwallis hurried on to join the 
British forces in Virginia. Greene, leaving Cornwallis to go 
his way, hastened southward to clear- the British out of South 
Carolina. At Hobkirk's Hill, two miles from Camden, he was 
attacked by Rawdon (April 25, 1781) and defeated, but, as 
usual, fell back in such good order that Rawdon gave up 
Camden to save his army.^ Lee and Marion gained victories 
in many small contests, and Greene, pushing onward, met the 
British again at Eutaw Springs (September 8, 1781), where he 
was defeated. The British now held themselves in Charleston 
under the protection of their fleet. In thirteen months Greene 
had practically recovered the Carolinas and Georgia from 
British rule. 

213. Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19, 1781. As we saw 
above, Cornwallis had abandoned the Carolinas and marched 
into Virginia, where a British force under Phillips and the 
traitor Arnold was plundering the country. Lafayette with three 
thousand men was at Richmond, and Cornwallis resolved to 
capture him ; but Lafayette was too clever and retreated skill- 
full)- with his weak force. At length Cornwallis, desiring for 
the sake of his supplies to be near the sea, marched down the 
peninsula and with seven thousand men took position at York- 
town. Lafayette, who had been recnforced by Steuben, pressed 
him with five thousand men. Now occurred the supreme 
moment of the long struggle. In August news reached Wash- 
ington that the magnificent and powerful French fleet of twenty- 
eight warships and six frigates, under Count de Grasse, had 
sailed from the West Indies for Chesapeake Bay. Washington 

1 Greene's report of his operations is singularly graphic: "We fight, get 
beat, and fight again." 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



decided on the daring plan of marching four hundred miles to 
Virginia, joining Lafayette, and hemming in Cornwallis by land, 
while the French fleet cut off his retreat by sea. Pretending 
he was preparing to attack New York,i Washington, with two 
thousand Americans and five thousand French soldiers under 
Rochambeau, who had joined him from Newport, left the Hud- 
son and hurried southward. ^ 
Before the British knew what 
he was about, he had reached 
Philadelphia and, embarking at 
the head of Chesapeake Bay, 
was approaching Yorktown. 
There he soon joined Lafayette. 
Sixteen thousand men, two 
thirds of whom were French- 
men, were now encamped 
across the narrow peninsula to 
cut off Cornwallis. In the 
meantime the French fleet ap- 
peared. An English squadron 
followed from the West Indies 
and attacked the French fleet, 
but was repulsed. Cornwallis 
had no hope of escape left. 
For two weeks shot and shell fell on the British camp from 
American and French guns. Day by day the lines' were moved 
nearer and nearer to the British camp. Cornwallis, seeing the 
hopelessness of his position, surrendered on the 19th of 
October, 1781, His army of seven thousand two hundred and 
forty-seven men and eight hundred and forty-seven seamen 

1 Washington wrote letters which he knew would fall into Clinton's hands. 
These letters described plans for an attack on New York. Clinton was 
deceived and did not learn until too late what Washington was really doing. 

^ At this time Robert Morris again came to the aid of Washington with 
money. Rochambeau furnished twenty thousand dollars and from France 
arrived supplies and half a million dollars. 



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ROCHAMBEAU 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 213 

threw down their arms. The allied troops were drawn up, 
Americans on the right, French on the left, with Washington 
and Rochambeau at their head.^ Between these lines the 
captured army marched out.^ 

214. Independence acknowledged. Treaty of Peace at Paris, 
September 3, 1783. The news of Vorktown was received 






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rill-: SLKREXOER AT VORKTOWX 

everywhere in the colonies with transports of delight. From 
the hilltops bonfires told the glad news, and fast riders hurried 
on to the most distant points with the cheerful tidings. In 
Paris the houses were illuminated and a Te Deum was sung 
in Notre Dame. In England the news created the utmost con- 
sternation. When Lord North, the prime minister, heard of 

1 Cornwallis claimed to be ill and sent his sword by General O'Hara. It was 
delivered to General Lincoln, who had surrendered at Charleston. A statue 
to Rochambeau was dedicated May 24, 1902, in Washington. 

- " The catastrophe at Vorktown was due to four causes : to the conflict of 
opinion between Clinton and Cornwallis ; to the untenable position which 
Cornwallis selected ; to the fact that Clinton allowed himself to be deceived 
by Washington ; and to the failure of the British admirals to secure the 
command of the sea." — Cross, " England," p. 776 



214 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the surrender, he threw up his arms and cried, " It is all over! " 
While the defeat of Cornwallis was not in itself perhaps suffi- 
cient to end the war,, it was not possible to continue it in view 
of the strong opposition in Parliament by the Whig party that 
was favorable to American independence. This party, led by 
Rockingham, Burke, and Charles James Fox, carried through 
Parliament (February 27, 1782) a motion for peace. Lord 
North was therefore compelled to resign, and the Whigs came 
into power. They forced the king at last to recognize the in- 
dependence of America, and the preliminary treaty was signed 
at Versailles, near Paris. 

On April 19, 1783, the eighth anniversary of the battle of 
Lexington, the army was disbanded by Washington and the 
heroic patriots returned to their homes. 

By the final treaty of peace, signed September 3, 1783, at 
Paris, the United States embraced the country between the 
Atlantic and the Mississippi. Plorida was ceded to Spain by 
Great Britain. Spain also claimed the territory at the mouth of 
the Mississippi. The area of the territory ceded to the Ll^nited 
States was about eight hundred thousand square miles. 

215. The Northwest Territory, 1787. Scarcely was the war 
over when the various states claimed title to lands in the West. 
We have already seen that under the charters of many of the 
colonies the grants extended from sea to sea. A glance at 
the map will show that Massachusetts claimed a large part of the 
present states of New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin ; Con- 
necticut claimed a strip across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 
and also a part of Pennsylvania ; New York claimed the terri- 
tory over which the Iroquois had ruled, extending into the Ohio 
country ; Virginia through her charter and George Rogers 
Clark's expedition claimed an enormous area stretching beyond 
Lake Superior ; North and South Carolina claimed as far west 
as the Mississippi River. Maryland insisted that all this land 
should be ceded to the national government for the benefit of all 
the states and that this vast area should be later formed into 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 215 

self-governing states. The states who claimed the land at last 
generously gave it up to the national government, and it was 
organized as the Northwest Territory in 1787. 

This cession had most important results. It bound the newly 
formed states together at a time when through dissension the 
confederation was in danger of falling to pieces.^ 

216. The Ordinance of 1787. The ordinance provided that 
Congress should appoint a governor, secretary, and three judges; 
that a legislature should be elected ; that no less than three 
nor more than five states might be formed from the territory, 
and as soon as any division had sixty thousand free inhabitants 
it would be admitted as a state with representation in Congress.^ 
The ordinance also provided that freedom of worship should 
be allowed ; that trial by jury should be granted ; that slavery 
should be forever prohibited ; and that schools and the means 
of education should be forever encouraged. The provision 
against slavery was of the greatest importance, as it prevented 
that system from gaining a foothold in these great states.-'^ 

By a contract with Congress the Ohio Company was granted 
one and one half million acres at the junction of the Ohio and 

1 " We are accustomed," says Daniel Webster. " to praise the lawgivers of 
antiquity . . . but I doubt whether one single law of any lawgiver, ancient or 
modern, has produced effects of more distinct, marked, and lasting character 
than the Ordinance of 1787." 

The ordinance followed in many respects the Virginia Ordinance of 17S4, 
which had been drafted by Jefferson. 

- The states that have been formed are Ohio. Indiana, Illinois. Michigan, 
and Wisconsin. A part of a sixth state. Minnesota, was also made from this 
territory. In 17S5 Congress had arranged the land system, which was later fol- 
lowed in disposing of Western lands. Townships were marked off six miles 
square. Each township was subdivided into thirty sections one mile square. 
One lot in every section had to be reserved for the support of schools. 

^ The land south of the Ohio was claimed by Virginia. North Carolina, 
South Carolina, and Georgia. South Carolina resigned her claim in 1787. 
In the section of North Carolina west of the mountains an independent state 
was organized by the inhabitants. Finally, in 1790, North Carolina ceded 
Tennessee to the United States. In 1792 Kentucky was formed into a sepa- 
rate state with the permission of Virginia. Alabama and Mississippi in 1802 
were ceded by Georgia to the national government. 



2i6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Muskingum rivers. New England settlers crossed the Alle- 
ghenies. They built boats and floated down the Ohio to the mouth 
of the Muskingum River, where Marietta was founded in 1788. 

217. Shays's Rebellion, 1786. The United States were now 
independent, but dangers beset them on every hand. They 
were heavily loaded with debt,^ and the armies were still 
unpaid. The paper money was practically worthless, and every- 
where there was great distress. In western Massachusetts the 
farmers were unable to pay their debts. Seeing their cattle 
seized for debt and their homesteads sold because of the heavy 
land taxation, they arose in rebellion in 1786 under Daniel 
Shays, a captain in the continental army. They attacked the 
courthouses in Worcester, Springfield, and other places, but 
were finally defeated and dispersed. 

218. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. It was now 
seen that the Articles of Confederation, under which Congress 
was acting, were too weak to sustain a strong government. 
Under these Articles Congress had no power to enforce its 
laws ; it could not levy taxes for any purpose ; it could not 
regulate commerce, as it could not enforce any of its own 
regulations. There was, therefore, no freedom of trade be- 
tween the states, one state passing tariff laws against another. 
Trade was prostrate, owing to the condition of the currency 
through the widespread use of paper money which the states 
printed at will.^ There was no president, the head of Con- 
gress being merely the member who was presiding at the time. 
There was no organized system of Federal courts. There was 
one House of Congress, elected by the state legislatures and 
therefore not directly in touch with the people. Each state 

1 It has been estimated that the total debt contracted by the colonies in the 
war was one hundred and forty million dollars. France spent directly sixty 
million dollars in our service, besides very large sums elsewhere in her 
war with Great Britain. The debt of England was increased about five hundred 
and sixty million dollars. 

2 One dollar of paper money at this time was worth about one or two cents 
in good money. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 217 

cast only one vote in Congress, whatever the number of its 
members there. ^ A unanimous vote was required to amend the 
Articles, and it was found in fact practically impossible ever to 
secure a unanimous vote. In brief, the national government was 
not a federal state but merely a league of states, or confeder- 
ation, acting through a body of delegates in the Continental 
Congress.'-^ 

In 1785 delegates from Virginia and Maryland met at 
Alexandria. With the assistance of George Washington they 
endeavored to settle disputes that were constantly arising over 
the navigation of the Potomac River. The meeting led to a 
discussion of the larger subject of the general commercial regu- 
lation of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. The Virginia 
legislature (January 21, 1786) asked the states to send delegates 
to a conference at Annapolis in September, 1786, to consider 
trade relations among the states. As only five states responded, 
little was accomplished. Madison, Hamilton, and John Dickin- 
son were present and declared there must be some central 
authority to carry out trade agreements if any were made. 
Another invitation was thereupon sent to the colonies for a 
convention to be held in Philadelphia in May, 1787, to revise 
the Articles of Confederation in order that a stronger govern- 
ment mijrht be secured.^ 



1 According to the size of the state, the membership from each state could 
be no less than two nor more than seven members. The members of each 
state determined how the one vote from that state should be recorded on any 
question in Congress. 

2 To add to the difficulties of the situation Congress was so deeply in debt 
that it could not pay even the interest on the public debt. This period has 
often been called " the Critical Period of American History." 

^ " The Congress of the Confederation, made up of delegates from states, 
could not pass effective laws or enforce its orders. It could ask for money 
but not compel payment; it could enter into treaties but not enforce their 
stipulations ; it could provide for raising of armies but not fill the ranks ; 
it could borrow money but take no proper measures for repayment ; it could 
advise and recommend but not command. In other words, with some of the out- 
ward seemings of a government, and with many of its responsibilities, it was not 
a government." — McLaughlin, " Confederation and Constitution." pp. 50-51 



2i8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

219. The Constitutional Convention. The Constitutional 
Convention of 1787 was composed of fifty -five members/ 
appointed by the legislatures of the several states. All the 
states were finally represented except I^hode Island, which 
sent no delegates. George Washington was chosen as the pre- 
siding officer. Four months of discussion followed, and it was 
seen that the Articles of Confederation would have to be entirely 
thrown aside and a new constitution formed, even though the 
Convention had been called merely to revise the Articles. 

220. Compromises of the Constitution. There were many 
compromises necessary in the Convention to secure the adop- 
tion of the Constitution. The first question arose over repre- 
sentation. The small states feared lest the large states would 
be able through greater representation to deny them their 
rights. It was finally arranged that in the House of Repre- 
sentatives the members should be elected according to popu- 
lation ; in the Senate every state, large and small, should have 
two votes. This satisfied the smaller states. A second question 
arose on the basis of representation. Should slaves who could 
not vote be enumerated when the population was taken as the 
basis of representation ? It was finally agreed that in the 
enumeration to determine the number of representatives to 
which a state was entitled, five slaves should count as three 
freemen. The third question touched the slave trade, and it 
was forbidden to prohibit this trade before i8o8."-^ 



1 The number of delegates that attended the Convention was fifty-five. 
Sixteen did not sign. The signers were therefore only thirty-nine. Among 
the members were George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, 
James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, John Dickinson, Rufus 
King, John Rutledge, George Mason, Charles Pinckney, and Charles C. 
Pinckney. The meetings of the Convention were secret, but James Madison 
kept full notes of the proceedings and they are of the greatest value in telling us 
the story of the Convention. They were not published, however, until 1840. 

2 " While the last members were signing," says Madison, " Dr. Franklin, 
looking toward the president's chair, at the back of which a rising sun hap- 
pened to be painted, observed to a few members near him that painters had 
found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. ' I have,' 



THE PKRIOI) OF THE REVOLl-TION 219 

221. The New Constitution. The new Constitution was 
adopted September 17, 1787, with these six objects as given 
in the preamble : 

1. To form a more perfect union. 

2. To estabhsh justice. 

3. To insure domestic tranquilhty. 

4. To provide for the common defense. 

5. To promote the general welfare. 

6. To secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our 
posterity. 

As soon as the Constitution was adopted by the Con- 
vention it was laid before Congress, which was asked to 
refer it to the people of the states for ratification. The favor- 
able vote of nine states was necessary to adopt it. There was 
an exceedingly bitter contest in some of the states, especially 
Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York. While this contest 
was pending, a series of eighty-five brilliant essays appeared 
in defense of the Constitution. They were written by Madison, 
Hamilton, and Jay, These essays have been published under 
the title "' The Federalist." "The Federalist" had a profound 
effect on public opinion and undoubtedly aided greatly in 
securing the adoption of the Constitution. The ninth state 
necessary to ratify the Constitution was secured June 21, 1788, 
amid great rejoicing and booming of cannon. The new Con- 
stitution was at last adopted. " Now the thirteen clocks all 
struck together," exclaimed John Adams. 

The new Constitution differed radically from the old Articles 
of Confederation. Under these Articles, as we have seen, 
there was one House of Congress but no president and no 
developed system of federal courts. The great weakness of 
the national government lay in the fact that it could not le\y 

said he, ' often and often in the course of this session looked at that behind 
the president without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting; but 
now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a 
setting sun.' " 



220 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

taxes or enforce its decrees. The new Constitution provided 
for three departments : 

1. The Legislative, to consist of a Congress made up of 
two houses, — a Senate and a House of Representatives. ^ This 
department was created to make the laws. 

2. The Executive, to consist of a president and officers to 
carry out these laws. 

3. The Judicial, to consist of Federal courts to interpret 
the laws. 

While the legislature of each state could still enact laws for its 
state, the Constitution became the supreme law of the land, to be 
obeyed by the national and state governments and by the people. 

222. Effects of the New Constitution. The new Constitution 
effected the following important results : 

1. It brought into existence our strong national government. 

2. It established the presidency of the nation. 

3. It founded the Supreme Court and the Federal courts. 

4. It gave Congress power to raise money by taxation. 

5. It conferred on Congress the right to regulate foreign 
and domestic commerce and thereby established freedom of 
trade between the states. 

6. It laid broad and deep the foundations of our national life. 
Many of the states had desired a Bill of Rights as a part 

of the Constitution and had accepted that instrument only when 
assured amendments would be added covering the idea of a 
Bill of Rights as soon as action could be secured. In 1791 the 
first ten amendments were therefore ratified and added to the 
Constitution. These amendments safeguarded the rights of 
the people by securing the freedom of religion, of speech, of 
the person, and of property. (See digest of the whole Consti- 
tution in Appendix.) 

1 The members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives were 
to be paid out of the national treasury instead of by the states, as was the 
case under the Articles of Confederation. It was thought that this would give 
the members a broader national viewpoint on national questions. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



The American Revolution was begun because of the repeated 
attempt of the British Parliament to levy taxes on the colonists without 
their consent. 

On July 4, 1776, independence was proclaimed by the colonists. 

On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered. France thereupon 
openly aided us with money, men, and a fleet. 

On October ig, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered. 

In 1783 the king of England acknowledged our independence. 

In 1787 the new Constitution was adopted by the Constitutional 
Convention. 

In 1789 the Constitution went into effect, and we became one of 
the nations of the earth. 

Dates to be remembered : 

1774. First Continental Congress. 

1775. Batdes of Lexington, Concord (April 19). 

1776. Declaration of Independence (July 4). 

1777. Surrender of Burgoyne (October 17). 

1778. France acknowledges the independence of the United States. 
1 781. Surrender of Cornwallis (October 19). 

17S3. Treaty of Peace with Great Britain. 
1787. The Constitution adopted. 

Ordinance of the Northwest Territor)'. 
17S9. Beginning of our government under the Constitution. 

Persons to know about : 

George Washington, James Otis, Samuel Adams, John Adams. 
John Hancock, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, 
Hamilton, Patrick Henry, Burgoyne, Nathanael Greene, John Barr\', 
Cornwallis, Lafayette, Steuben, Pulaski, Kosciuszko, John Paul Jones, 
Charles Carroll of Carrollton. 

Map work : 

Locate Boston, Lexington, Concord. 

Locate Mount Vernon, Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, Fort 
Duquesne. 



222 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Draw the route of Burgoyne. 

Locate Trenton, West Point, Valley Forge, Yorktovvn, Savannah. 
Locate Vincennes, Detroit, St. Louis. 

Locate Oriskany, Saratoga, Ticonderoga, Bennington, Montreal, 
Lake Champlain. 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Mention three attempts made before 1776 to unite the English 
colonies in common action, and tell how far each was successful. 

2. Give four important reasons for the success of the Americans in 
their revolution against so formidable a power as England. 

3. The American Revolution was begun with hardly a thought of 
independence. What changed the attitude of the revolutionists and made 
possible the Declaration of Independence.'' 

4. Explain why the defeat of Burgoyne was so important to the 
American cause. 

5. Why is Washington regarded as a great general, although he was 
more often defeated than victorious in the open field 'i 

6. By what authority was the United States governed {a) from 1776 
to 1781 ? (b) from 1781 to 1789? By what authority has it been governed 
from I 789 to the present time ? 

7. Explain three great compromises made in the Constitutional 
Convention. 

8. Point out three leading defects in the Articles of Confederation. 
State provisions in the Constitution that remedied these defects. Show 
why the Articles of Confederation marked an important step in our 
political history. 

9. Give five reasons that make it justifiable to apply.-to the period of 
Confederation the title, " The Critical Period of American History." 

10. Mention four things which the Constitution accomplished. 



READINGS 

Histories. Baldwin, J., Conquest 0/ the Old A'orthwest {C\ax\Cs Ex- 
pedition). Channing, E., United States, Vol. II. Creasy, E. S., Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World (Burgoyne's Surrender). Fisher, S. G., 
The Struggle for American Independence. FiSKE, J., The Atnericati Revo- 
lution. Critical Period of American History. Griffix, M. I. J., Z//"^ ^y" 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 223 

Captain John Barry. Hapgood, H., Paul Jones. Hinsdale, B. A., The 
Old Northiuest. Howard, G. E., Preliminaries of the Revolution. 
McLaughlin, A. C, The Confederation and the Constitution. McMaster, 
J. B., With the Fathers. McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Mississippi 
Valley (Boone, Robertson, Sevier, Clark). Roosevelt, T., Wintting of 
the West. Smith, J. H., Arnold's March to Quebec. Thwaites, R. G., 
Daniel Boone. Trevelyan, G. O., American Revolution. Van Tyne, 
C. H., American Revolution. Loyalists in the American Revolutio7t. 
Wilson, Woodrow, Life of Washington. 

Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. H, P- 383 (Adventures of Daniel 
Boone); p. 402 (Action of the Stamp Act Congress); p. 404 (Pitt's Protest 
against Colonial Taxation); p. 387 (Settlement of the West); p. 407 
(Franklin before the House of Commons); p. 434 (John Adams on the 
First Continental Congress) ; p. 449 (Tyranny of George the Third) ; 
p. 458 (A Loyalist's View); p. 537 (Drafting the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence); p. 568 (Life at Valley Forge); p. 574 (The Treaty with 
France); p. 579 (Conquest of the Illinois Country); p. 609 (The War in 
the South); p. 615 (^Surrender of Cornwallis). Muzzey, Readings in 
American Histo7y, p. 133 (Final Petition to King George III); p. 138 
(Paine's Argument for Independence); p. 141 (The French Alliance); 
p. 148 (Capture of Vincennes); p. 153 (The Tories). Old South Leaflets, 
No. 97 {Lafayette in the American Revolution); No. 152 {Jones's 
Account of the Battle between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis); 
No. 47 {Washington at Cambridge); No. 68 {Boston Tea Party). 

Fiction. Bryant, W. C, Green Mountain Boys (poem). Song of 
Marion's Men (poem). Campbell, T., Gertrude of Wyoming (poem). 
Churchill, W., The Crossing (a story of Louisiana after the Purchase). 
Emerson, R. W., Concord Hymn (poem). Ford, P. L., Janice Meredith 
(a story of the leading characters in the American Revolution). Frederic, 
H., /// the Valley (a story of Dutch life during the Revolution in the 
Mohawk valley). Jewett, S. O., The Tory Lover (a story of John Paul 
Jones and his career). Kennedy, J. P.. Horseshoe Robinson (a tale of the 
Southern Tories). Lanier, S., Lexington (poem). Longfellow, H. W., 
Paul Revere' s Ride {poem). Lowell, J. R., Under the Old Elm (poem). 
Mitchell, S. W., Hugh Wynne (a story of Philadelphia in the Revolu- 
tionary period). Porter, J., Thaddeus of Warsaw (treats of the stirring 
times of Kosciuszko). Simms, W. G., The Partisan (a tale of the Revolu- 
tion in the South). Thompson, D. P., Green Mountain Boys (a story of 
Ethan Allen and his times). Whittier, J. G., Yorktown (poem). 



224 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



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CHAPTER X 

" America has a natural base for the greatest continuous empire ever 
established by man." — Gladstone 

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE UNITED STATES 

223. The Three Great Geographical Regions. The condition 
of any people is affected to a greater or lesser degree by their 
physical surroundings. The geography of a country, which 
means its mountains, rivers, plains, coast-line, rainfall, soil, and 
mineral deposits, has a vital influence on its history. ^ 

The principal relief features of our country consist of three 
great geographical regions. These regions are, first, the Eastern 
Highland, which includes the Atlantic Slope and the Appala- 
chian Highland ; second, the Central Plain ; third, the Western 
Highland. 

The Eastern Highland extends from the Atlantic Ocean to 
the crest of the Appalachian Mountains. Good harbors are 
numerous ; many rivers furnish abundant water power ; in the 
Middle and Southern states the bays and rivers afford water- 
ways to the interior. The settlement of the Atlantic Slope 
proceeded very slowly and at the time of the Revolution it 
was under the rule of Great Britain. 

The Central Plain comprises the territory from the crest of 
the Appalachians westward to the crest of the Rockies, — an 
area of wondrous fertility, traversed by the rivers of the great 
Mississippi system. Intrepid Erench explorers and Catholic 

1 Scientific discoveries during the past two centuries have, however, modi- 
fied physical disadvantages. The steam engine, canals, and railroads have 
overcome distances and brought markets and cities close together. Scientific 
irrigation is changing deserts into gardens, and engineering projects are 
changing swamp lands into thriving homesteads. 
225 



226 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



missionaries discovered most of this region, and over the 
greater part of it waved the fiag of France until the downfall 
of P^rench power in America as the result of the French and 
Indian War. 

The Western Highland comprises the territory extending 
from the Rocky Mountains westward to the Pacific Ocean. 




Alexis h.. trye 



RELIEF MAP OF THE UNITED STATES 



224. The Effect of Physical Features on the Settlement of 
the Country. The English made their earliest settlements 
along the Atlantic seaboard, as this was the region most ac- 
cessible to voyagers from Europe. Forests and mountains and 
tribes of hostile Indians tended to prevent them from moving 
westward to the great Central Plain. ^ This compact grouping 
of the colonies led to a well-ordered system of government 
and a harmony of ideas which at the proper time resulted in 
securing independence, from Great Britain. 



1 In fact, George III in 1763 drew a line around the sources of the rivers 
which flow into the Atlantic. This was the so-called " Proclamation Line." The 
country west of this line was set apart for the Indians, and the colonists for 
the time were forbidden to settle there. (See sect. 144.) 



PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE UNITED STATES 227 

Through the passes of the Appalachians and along the 
waterway of the Ohio a great westward movement began soon 
after the War of Independence. Emigrants from Europe seek- 
ing homes on the vast Central Plain swelled the number of the 
colonists. Cities were built, governments were organized, and 
states were formed until the entire Mississippi basin became 
the scene of a prosperous civilization. 

The Western Highland was less fertile, not having sufficient 
rainfall except in certain parts of the Pacific coast, but the 
discovery of gold, silver, and other metals in 1848 caused a 
tide of immigration to this region. 

225. The Resources of the United States. The United States 
is wonderfully endowed with all the physical requirements of 
a great civilization. Thus, by means of the water power of the 
East manufacturing was begun, and this was later developed 
by protective laws ; the fields of the South produce an abun- 
dance of cotton, sugar, and rice ; in the great upper Mississippi 
basin grow wheat and corn, more than enough for the entire 
nation ; coal, iron, and other valuable minerals abound ; the 
waters along the coast, as well as the rivers, abound in fish ; 
fruit grows in abundance in almost every section ; the Hudson 
River, the Erie Barge Canal, and the Great Lakes form a 
continuous water route from New York to the heart of the 
country, while the Mississippi and its tributaries furnish a 
waterway for thousands of miles ; railroads in every direction 
overcome any natural obstacles that would impede the pathways 
of commerce. 

P2xcept Alaska and the tropical possessions, the United 
States has a temperate climate, ^ — the climate of the countries 
that lead the world's progress. The rainfall, except on parts 
of the Western plains and Western Highland, is abundant. 

1 The climate of the United States is. in its general features, like that of the 
European countries from which our immigrants have come. These countries 
are, in general. Norway, Sweden, Great Britain. Ireland, Denmark, Germany, 
the Netherlands. France, Austria-Hungary, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Russia. 



228 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The products of the farms, forests, and mines ; the deep 
waterways of the bays, rivers, and lakes ; the excellent water 
power of the streams, — all have helped to make the United 
States the richest and most progressive nation of the world. 

With settlers drawn from every country of Europe, the 
United States enjoyed during the nineteenth century the most 
wonderful progress recorded in the pages of history. 



There are in the United States three great geographical regions : 
first, the Eastern Highland ; second, the great Central Plain ; third, 
the Western Highland. 

In physical resources the United States has almost everything for 
its own needs. For food it has wheat, corn, meat, fish, potatoes, rice, 
sugar, and fruits ; for manufacturing it has water power, coal, lumber, 
cotton, oil, and minerals. 

Its coasts have excellent harbors ; its rivers and the Great Lakes 
furnish waterways to the heart of the continent. 

Its climate is that of the temperate zone, which develops activity 
and enterprise. 

It has for much of its area a sufficient rainfall. 

These resources and advantages, added to the enterprise of the 
settlers, have produced the most wonderful political development 
in history. 

READINGS 

Brigham, a. p., Geographic Influences in Ame-ricatt History. 
Farraxd, L., Basis of American History. Frve, A. E., Geog?-aphy. 
Gregory, Keller, and Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geography. 
Hinsdale, B. A., Old Northwest. Hulbert, A. B., Historic Highways 
of America. Semple, E. C, Americati History atid its Geographic Con- 
ditions. Shaler, N. S., United States, Vol. I. Van Hise, C. R., Co?!- 
servation of A^atnral Resources in the United States. Winsor, J. (Ed.), 
A'arrative and Critical History of America, Vol. IV. 



CHAPTER XI 

" A rising nation, spread over a wide and fruitful land, traversing all the 
seas with the rich productions of their industry, . . . advancing rapidly 
to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye. . . . May that Infinite Power 
which rules the destinies of the universe lead our councils to what is 
best and give them a favorable issue for your peace and prosperity." 
— Jefferson, " First Inaugural Address "' 

THE PERIOD OF UNION 

Washington's Administrations, i 789-1 797 

226. The Inauguration ; Political Parties. George Wash- 
ington ^ was unanimously elected first president of the United 
States and John Adams was chosen vice president. Washing- 
ton's journey from his home in Virginia to New York, which 
was at that time the national capital, was a triumphal progress. 
As there were no railroads it was necessary to make the jour- 
ney by stagecoach. Everywhere the people, with banners, music, 
and fiowers, welcomed him. He was inaugurated April 30, 
1789, on the balcony of the Federal Building, which occupied 
the site of the present Subtreasury on Wall Street in New 
York City. The oath was administered by Robert R. Living- 
ston, Chancellor of the State of New York, who turned to the 
vast populace assembled below and cried, " Long li\e George 
Washington, the president of the United States! " 

1 George Washington was born in Virginia, February 22, 1732. In his early 
life he was a surveyor and at nineteen was appointed major by Governor Din- 
widdle. At the outbreak of the Revolution he was chosen commander in chief 
of the American army by the Continental Congress. He was elected president 
in 1788 and reelected in 1792. Me is by common consent the leading figure 
in our national life. He died at Mount Vernon, December 14, 1799, loved and 
respected by the entire nation. 

229 



230 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Washington belonged to no political party.^ Two parties 
had now arisen in the country, however, the Federalist and 
the Republican, or Democratic-Republican as it was frequently 





i^^li- 






im 



T 



(i/.p^[^^:';-;.;;iy!i"ii 



FEDERAL BUILDING, WALL STREET, NEW YORK 

called. The Federalists were led by Hamilton and believed in 
a strong central government ; the Democratic- Republicans, with 
Jefferson as their leader, would give the greatest possible power 
to the individual states. 

1 Washington's first cabinet consisted of Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of 
State; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Knox, Secre- 
tary of War; and PIdmund Randolph, Attorney-General. In this cabinet were 
men of entirely different political beliefs. Hamilton was a strong Federalist, 
while Jefferson was an equally strong Democratic-Republican. From these 
Democratic-Republicans descended the present Democratic party. The Re- 
publican party of to-day did not come into existence until 1854. 

Washington's nonpartisan cabinet existed until 1795. After that day his 
cabinet was made up only of Federalists. As a rule since that time a cabinet 
is composed only of members of the same party as the president. There was 
much discussion at first as to the title to be given to the president. It was 
suggested that he be called " His Highness, the President of the United States 
of America and Protector of their Liberties." Finally, it was agreed that no 
title should be given by law, and he has always been called " Mr. President." 



n 



:4^ ' 




GEORGE WASHINGTON 



231 



232 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



227. Loose and Strict Construction. The differences between 
the Federahsts and the Democratic-RepubUcans gave rise to 
two views of the Constitution, that of the loose constructionists 
and that of the strict constructionists. The loose construction- 
ists were the Federalists, who believed that Congress should 
have authority to do anything not absolutely forbidden it by the 
Constitution under Section 9. They held the Constitution to 
be an instrument of not only expressed powers but also of 
wiplicel powers. They would have the strongest possible cen- 
tralized Federal government, 
superior to the states. 

The strict constructionists 
were the Democratic-Repub- 
licans, who would limit the 
powers of Congress to those 
given it by the Constitution 
under Section 8. They held 
the Constitution to be an in- 
strument of express eel powers 
only, as is shown by the Ninth 
and Tenth amendments. All 
powers, therefore, not expressly 
granted to the Federal govern- 
ment remained with the states. 
The issue was not finally settled until the Civil War won 
a triumph for the loose constructionists and the idea of 
national supremacy over state rights. 

228. Payment of the Debts, 1790. The first great achieve- 
ment of Washington's administration was the arrangement for 
the payment of the public debt. On account of the extraordi- 
nary expenses of the war vast sums had been expended by 
the Continental Congress and also by the various states. To 
foreign countries, especially France, Spain, and .Holland, we 
owed more than eleven million dollars. The home debt which 
was owed by the nation to citizens of the states was about 




ALEXANDER HAMILTON 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 233 

forty-two million dollars, while the states had contracted obli- 
gations to the amount of nearly twenty-five million dollars. The 
total debt, therefore, was nearly eighty million dollars. 

Hamilton ^ proposed that the United States should pay off 
all the indebtedness. There was no objection to the payment 
of the foreign and domestic debts. There was, however, the 
strongest opposition to the payment of the state debts by the 
Federal government. It was maintained by many that the states 
should pay off their own debts, Congress having no authority 
to do so."-^ The measure became a law finally through the 
efforts of Hamilton, who made a compromise with Jeffers6n. 
The Democratic-Republicans, having in their party many 
Southerners, desired the national capital to be built on the 
shores of the Potomac River ; the Federalists desired it to 
be built on the Delaware. As a result of the compromise 
between Hamilton and Jefferson the Federalists agreed that 
Philadelphia should be the seat of government for ten years, 
from 1 790 to 1800. After 1800 the permanent national capital 
should be located on the Potomac River. As the leader of the 
Democratic-Republicans Jefferson induced his followers to 
accept the compromise and enough Democratic-Republicans 
voted for the payment of the debts to carry the measure. This 
placed our national credit on the strongest foundation. 

229. The Tariff and Internal Revenue Tax. The national 
revenue was now largely increased by a tariff laid on imports ; 
that is, a tax or duty was placed on foreign goods arriving at 

^ Alexander Hamilton was born in the island of Xevis in the West Indies 
in 1757. Coming to the American colonies he served in the Continental army 
under Washington. He was admitted to the bar and was a member of the 
Continental Congress in 1782 and the Constitutional Convention of 17S7. He 
was one of the authors of " The P'ederalist." For si\ years (1789-179;) he was 
Secretary of the Treasury in President Washington's cabinet. He died July 12, 
1S04, as the result of a duel with Aaron Burr. 

- Hamilton maintained that as the Federal government now collected the 
customs duties that formerly had gone into the treasuries of the states and by 
which they paid their debts, it was only right now for the national government 
to assume the state debts. 



234 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

our ports. ^ A little later an internal revenue tax was placed on 
whisky and other liquors. This tax was levied directly by the 
Federal government on distillers and brewers. It caused trouble 
for a time, as we shall see in the Whisky Rebellion. 

The protective tariff showed the right of the Federal gov- 
ernment to tax foreigners ; the internal revenue tax showed 
its right to tax its own citizens. 

230. Establishment of a Federal Bank. The United States 
Mint. Hamilton - also proposed the establishment of a national, 
or Federal, bank to act as financial agent of the government. 
This, he believed, would build up the public credit and would 
help to provide a uniform currency. After considerable oppo- 
sition the bank which was known as the First Bank of the 
United States was chartered in 1791 for twenty years. It was 
located at Philadelphia. This bank issued currency which was 
accepted everywhere in place of the old state bank notes 
issued by the different states, which people frequently refused 
to take. 

Provision was also made for a mint to issue gold and silver 
coins with a system of decimal currency which had been pro- 
posed by Jefferson. This system took the place of the PLnglish 
method of reckoning in pounds, shillings, and pence, which had 
been in use in America, The dollar was made the unit. It 
was divided, as we so well know to-day, into ten dimes, or one 
hundred cents. 

1 This tariff (enacted July 4, 1789) was both a revenue' and a protective 
tariff. It secured revenue by the tax laid on goods made in foreign factories. 
It was protective because it tried to protect the American manufacturer 
against the competition of foreign goods by placing so high a duty or tax on 
them that they could not be imported with profit. It was thought this would 
allow Americans to start factories here and manufacture most of the goods 
needed in the United States. The Northern states, as a manufacturing section, 
in general favored a protective tariff, the Southern states, being agricultural, 
opposed it, as they had to buy manufactured goods and the tariff raised the 
prices on all goods. 

- Daniel Webster, in recognition of Hamilton's great work in establishing 
the national credit, said, " He touched the dead corpse of public credit and it 
sprang upon its feet." 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 235 

231. The Appointment of Bishop Carroll. Until 1784 the 
Catholic Church in America had been subject to the Vicar 
Apostolic of London. Steps were now taken to make the 
church in America a distinct body from that of England by 
the appointment of a Bishop. In 1789 the first Episcopal See 
in America was erected in Baltimore, and Reverend John 
Carroin was consecrated the first Bishop. In 1789 he founded 
Georgetown College, which was transferred sixteen years later 
to the Society of Jesus. 

232. The Admission of Vermont, 1791. The first state to be 
admitted after the formation of the government was Vermont, 
which became a member of the Union in 1791. The territory 
of this state had been claimed by Massachusetts, New Hamp- 
shire, and especially by New York. In 1777 the people in 
convention declared themselves to be an independent state. 
They fought gallantly during the Revolution. An adjustment 
of the difficulties with her neighbors was finally made by Ver- 
mont, and she became the fourteenth state of the Union in 
1 79 1. Vermont was the first state to abolish slavery within 
its limits. 

233. The Admission of Kentucky, 1792. Kentucky had been 
a common hunting ground for the Indians when Daniel Boone 
and other famous hunters entered the territory and made a 
settlement (1775) at Boonesborough. The territory belonged 
to Virginia. The people of Kentucky asked (1784) for separa- 
tion from Virginia. It was later granted to them by that 
state, and in 1792 Kentucky became the fifteenth state of the 
Union. 

^ Most Reverend John Carroll was born in Maryland in 1735 ^^'^ ^^''^^ edu- 
cated for the most part in Belgium. At the age of eighteen he entered the 
Society of Jesus. In 1773. on the suppression of the Order, he went to Eng- 
land. Just previous to the outbreak of the Revolution he came to America. 
He was a member of the Embassy sent by Congress to Canada in 1776. In 
1784 he was appointed Vicar Apostolic of the United States. Five years 
later he was consecrated Bishop, and in 1808 was named Archbishop with 
four suffragan dioceses: Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and Bardstown 
(Kentucky). 



236 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



234. The Admission of Tennessee, 1796. The territory of 
Tennessee belonged to North CaroHna. Hunters and settlers 
under Robertson and Sevier crossed the mountains from North 
Carolina and formed (1769), in the territory of the Cherokee 
Indians, the Watauga Association on the Watauga River, which 
is one of the headwaters of the Tennessee. These settlers 
later formed the state of Franklin, a fact that led to armed 







A PIONEER KENTUCKY SETTLEMENT 



difficulties with North Carolina, which refused to recognize the 
new state. In 1790 North Carolina ceded the disputed territory 
to the United States, and under the name of Tennessee it was 
admitted to the Union as the sixteenth state in 1796. 

235. The First Census, 1790. The first census of the United 
States was taken in 1790. It showed a population of nearly 
four million inhabitants. In rank of population Virginia led, 
followed by Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Massachusetts, New 
York, Maryland, South Carolina, and Connecticut. About one 
fifth of the population were slaves. The largest city was 



'i'lli: Pl'RIOD OF UNION 237 

Philadelphia (with only forty-two thousand people), followed by 
New York (with thirty-two thousand), Boston (with eighteen 
thousand), Charleston, and Baltimore. 

Travel was exceedingly slow and costly. It required eight 
days to go from Boston to New York and cost twenty-five 
dollars. From New York to Washington required ten days. In 
westward travel the roads were even poorer and the time required 
much greater to cover each mile. Wherever possible sailing 
vessels were used to carry passengers and goods. 

236. Battle of the Maumee, or Fallen Timbers, 1794. The 
westward movement of the population, especially across the 
Ohio River, aroused the hostility of the Indians, who were 
already incited against us by the English military and civil 
officials. Several expeditions were sent to overawe the Indians. 
The first, under General Harmar, destroyed Indian villages 
and supplies, but brought about no permanent results. General 
St. Clair then marched against them with two thousand troops 
(1 79 1). Heedless of* Washington's advice to guard against a 
surprise, he was led into an ambush and his army was destroyed. 
As a result of these disasters the Indians became more active 
than ever. General Wayne was now sent to command an ex- 
pedition. He met the Indians (August 18, 1794) at the Maumee 
River, not far from the present city of Toledo. Here the battle 
of the Maumee, or Fallen Timbers, was fought. The Indians 
were so completely defeated by the "chief that never sleeps," 
as they described Wayne, that they signed a treaty in 1795 at 
Greenville, ceding a territory of about twenty-five thousand 
square miles of territory, now comprising southern and eastern 
Ohio, to the United States. Wayne's victory opened the large 
area now embraced in the state of Ohio to peaceful settlement. 

237. The Admission of Ohio. Prince Gallitzin. In the mean- 
time a steady stream of pioneers had been pouring into the 
Ohio valley from beyond the Alleghenies. One stream was 
made up of emigrants from New England and New York. 
They settled in the so-called Connecticut Reserve. Here the 



2 38 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

city of Cleveland was founded in 1796. Another stream com- 
ing from Virginia entered southern Ohio. Towns were founded 
along the Ohio, the earliest among them being Marietta and 
Cincinnati ^ in 1788. 

In 1800 the state of Connecticut ceded the Connecticut 
Reserve to the United States, As Virginia threw open to set- 
tlement her military lands, the two streams of immigrants joined 
to form one community, which became the state of Ohio. 

Only seven years after Wayne's treaty with the Indians, so 
great had been the flood of settlers, Ohio was admitted (1803) 
into the Union as the seventeenth state. 

At this time a Russian nobleman, Prince Gallitzin,"^ was 
ordained to the priesthood and began his missionary labors in 
the wilds of Pennsylvania and Maryland. He founded (1799) 
the settlement of Loretto in western Pennsylvania and 
ministered throughout that unbroken country. 

238. The Whisky Rebellion, 1794. From the time of their 
settlement in western Pennsylvania the farmers had been ac- 
customed to make whisky from grain in their stores and on 
their farms. They could carry the whisky over the bad roads 
to the Eastern cities more easily than they could transport the 
bulky quantities of rye and corn from which it was made and 
they could always secure a good price for it. When, therefore, 
the government placed an internal revenue, or excise tax, on 
whisky, they resented it and refused to pay the tax. They 
drove away the officers sent to collect the tax and defied the 
government. President Washington decided to show once for 
all that the acts of the national government could not be defied 
at will. He called out the militia, and fifteen thousand 

^ Cincinnati received its name from the society formed by the officers of 
the Revolution at the close of that war. Cincinnatus was a Roman noble who 
was called from the plow to serve his country and returned to the plow after 
the danger was over. The formation of the society aroused great opposition, 
as many claimed it was a plan to establish hereditary titles here. 

- On September 29, 1899, a statue was erected to Gallitzin's memory at 
Loretto, Pennsylvania. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



239 



troops were sent to the scene of the riots. As soon as the 
troops appeared the rioters laid down their arms. The lessons 
of this rebellion were valuable ones. The people everywhere 
saw that the acts of Congress must be obeyed and that the 
authority of the national government was supreme over state 
and citizen. 

239. The Cotton Gin, 1793. 
In the year 1 793 Eli Whitney of 
Massachusetts, a school teacher 
who was on a visit to the South, 
conceived the idea of a machine 
for separating cotton and its 
seeds. It was, up to this time, 
a day's work for a man to clean 
four pounds of cotton. Hence 
cotton cloth was ver)^ expensive. 
Whitney's gin from the first 
enabled a man to clean fifty 
pounds in one day, and later 
improvements greatly increased 
its capacity. As a result of this 
invention cotton growing, which 

had been unimportant, became at once one of the leading in- 
dustries of the country, the exports reaching enormous figures 
within five years, especially to England, which had up to this 
time secured its cotton from the East and West Indies.^ Im- 
mense cotton mills were erected in the North to weave cotton 
into cloth. This invention had an unexpected result, however. 




ELI WHITXEV 



1 " In 1790," says Draper, " no cotton was exported from the United States. 
Whitney's cotton gin was introduced in 1793. ^^^ next year about one and 
a half millions of pounds were exported and in 1795 about five and a quarter 
millions; in i860 the quantity had reached two thousand millions of pounds." 
To-day the production of cotton reaches the enormous amount of thirteen 
to sixteen million bales of five hundred pounds each. The invention of the 
gin came at the very time when rice and indigo had fallen to so low a price 
that they scarcely repaid the expense of cultivation. 



240 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Before the invention of the cotton gin it was generally 
believed both by the North and by the South that slavery 
would pass away, as it was not profitable. The cotton gin, 
however, made slave labor very profitable to the cotton planter 




'm^^!^^^M^m^£^^m^<^ 



A COTTON FIELD 



of the South. At the same time it enlisted the sympathy and 
active support of the Northern mill owners in maintaining the 
slave system, as they could thereby secure more and cheaper 
cotton.^ The cotton gin, therefore, not only helped to fasten 
slavery on the country but prevented its peaceful abolition. 

^ The cotton industry received a wonderful impetus from some great 
English inventions of this period. John Kay invented the fly-shuttle, a 
machine to drive the shuttle to and fro. Hargreaves devised the spinning 
jenny, by which eight or ten strands of wool, cotton, or flax could be spun into 
thread at one time. Arkwright invented a machine for drawing out threads 
by rollers. Crompton combined the best features of the spinning jenny and 
roller machine into a new machine called the " mule." Cartwright invented a 
power loom for weaving. The looms were run by water power or horses. 
James Watt, by his improvement of the steam engine, revolutionized the 
industry when the looms were driven by steam power. These inventions led 
to the factory system, which replaced the method of manufacturing in the 
homes, which had been the custom up to that time. They made England 
at that time the greatest manufacturing nation of the world. 



THE PKRIOI) OF UNION 



241 



240. The First Cotton Mill, 1790. In 1790 Samuel Slater 
opened a mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. He had been em- 
ployed in an English factory where the new spinning machin- 
ery was used. The British Parliament had forbidden anyone, 
under heavy penalties, to make for foreign countries or to 
send out of England any spinning machinery, or drawings or 
models of the machinery. 

Slater came to America and from memory made the machin- 
ery. Slater's mill was the beginning of the wonderful cotton 
and woolen mills of our 
country that produce to- 
day hundreds of millions 
of dollars' worth of goods. 

241. The French Rev- 
olution. In 1789 a 
revolution broke out in 
France. This revolution 
was caused partly by the 
revolution in America, 
but more largely by 
the unequal systems of tul; toTTox (;ix 
taxation ^ then in use in 

P'rance. The nobility and the wealthy classes practically escaped 
the payment of taxes, while the peasant farmers were weighed 
down by the fearful burden of taxation which they were com- 
pelled to bear. 

Although P^rance had in theory a representative assembly, it 
had not been called together in one hundred and seventy-five 
years. During this time the kings of France had ruled and 
taxed as they pleased. In 1789 the National Assembly was 
called together and demanded a new constitution. This began 
the revolution, which gradually carried all before it. The king, 
Louis XVI, and the queen, Marie Antoinette, were beheaded, 

1 This taxation was especially heavy because of the numerous wars in which 
France had been engaged for almost two hundred years. 




242 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

and also hundreds of the leading nobles. Others fled for safety 
to foreign countries. The old laws were swept away, property 
was confiscated, and a reign of terror was begun. 

In a short time the revolutionists turned on each other, and 
thousands were beheaded in the fearful civil war. The mon- 
archs of Europe, taking alarm for their thrones, joined together 
to reestablish royalty in PVance. War broke out between France 
and England in 1793, and soon Spain, Austria, Holland, and 
Prussia took up arms against France. 

242. Citizen Genet. As France had been our ally in the 
Revolution, most Americans were in sympathy with her in her 
plan to establish a republic and to overthrow royalty. 

At this time Edmond C. Genet ^ was sent as minister from 
the Republic of France to secure the cooperation of the United 
States against England and to detach the Floridas and Louisiana 
from Spain. Genet arrived at Charleston, South Carolina, in 
1793 and began to fit out privateers against English commerce. 
Washington believed the United States was not in a position 
to interfere in European quarrels, even if it wished to do so. 
He therefore issued a proclamation of neutrality, refusing to 
take part in the war on the side either of France or of England. 
This course enraged the Democratic-Republicans. Believing 
that France had been our steadfast friend, while England had 
frequently been hostile to us, they called meetings to express 
their sympathy with France. Arriving in Philadelphia, Genet 
endeavored to stir up the people against the president. Genet's 
recall was requested, and the French government complied, 

243. Jay's Treaty, 1794. To make matters worse at this 
time, England continued to refuse to give up the Western posts 
held by her soldiers. She seized our seamen who were natu- 
ralized American citizens, as she maintained that no English- 
man could change his nationality. She declared, also, that many 
British sailors were enlisted in our navy. 

1 Genet (zhe nay')- As France had abolished all titles, they n'ow used the 
term citizen in addressing each other. 




[jL.i 



C I F ^J C 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 243 

To remedy this intolerable condition of affairs, President 
Washington sent John Jay, the Chief Justice of the United States 
Supreme Court, as special envoy to England to negotiate a treaty. 

By this treaty the king of England agreed to withdraw his 
troops by 1 796 from the posts they still occupied, — Detroit, 
Oswego, Niagara, Mackinaw, — and to pay for damages to 
our shipping.^ 

The treaty allowed American vessels of a certain small size 
to trade with the British West Indies, provided the United 
States would forbid its vessels to carry molasses, sugar, coffee, 
cocoa, and cotton to any part of the world except the United 
States.^ Jay consented to this clause, not realizing the remark- 
able future of the export of cotton from the United States. 

The treaty was most unpopular everywhere. Jay was hung 
in effigy. Washington was abused, and Hamilton was stoned 
while endeavoring to justify it. With the exception of the 
West India clause, which prohibited the exportation of cotton, 
however, it was ratified by the Senate (1795). Practically the 
only good result of the treaty was the postponement of war with 
England for seventeen years, during which time our population 
doubled and we were better able to enforce our rights. 

244. Treaties with Spain and Algiers. An important treaty 
was made in 1795 with Spain. By this treaty the Florida 
boundary was agreed upon and the Mississippi River was 
opened to trade. We were also given permission to use New 
Orleans as a port of deposit, which meant we were allowed to 
land goods there free of duty while the goods were awaiting 
transshipment. The opening of the Mississippi was hailed 

' As France had thrown open her West Indian ports to us our ships were 
trading there by the hundreds, and many had been captured by EngHsh war 
vessels. We claimed that as " free ships made free goods " they were exempt 
from seizure, but England denied this doctrine. 

■- The treaty was in other respects most favorable to Great Britain. It 
allowed British ships to trade with the United States without discrimination, 
permitted to England free navigation of the Mississippi, and provided that 
privateers should not be allowed to fit out in our ports. The treaty said noth- 
ing about the right of search or the impressment of seamen. 



244 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

with great joy by the settlers of the West, who wished to use the 
great waterway to reach the world's markets with their goods. 
The same year a treaty was signed with Algiers, To release 
thirteen American seamen who had been held as captives for ten 
years by these pirates, eighty thousand dollars were paid and an 
annual tribute of twenty-three thousand dollars was promised to 
the rulers of Algiers for the protection of American shipping. 



,/,_ ^ 



^-2^ 




WASHINGTON AND LAFAYETTE AT MOUNT VERNON 

245. Washington's Farewell Address. As his second term ^ 
of ofifice was closing, Washington declined election for a third 
time and issued a farewell address. In this noble document 
he asked his fellow citizens to hold aloof from permanent alli- 
ances with any portion of the foreign world, but to preserve 
" harmony and a liberal intercourse with all nations." He 
warned the country against the dangers of party spirit and 
advised respect for law, for the national credit, for public and 
private virtue, for religion and morality. " Of all the disposi- 
tions and habits," said Washington, "which lead to political 
prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports." 

1 Washington had been unanimously reelected in 1792 with John Adams as 
vice president. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 245 

He left the presidency to return to his beautiful home at 
Mount Vernon. On leaving the high office Washington could 
indeed look with pride on the advance of his country during 
the eight years of his administration. The Constitution was 
firmly established, the laws were well administered, the pub- 
lic credit was secure, the revenues were increasing daily, and 
we were extending our commerce on all sides. 

On returning to private life Washington was hailed by all 
the people with the proudest title a patriot may enjoy, '" The 
r^ather of his Countn,-." 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of Washington's administrations were as follows : 

Our government was begun in 1789 under the Constitution. 

The payment of our debt, foreign and domestic, was provided 
for in 1790 and our national credit established at home and abroad. 

A tariff law was passed (1789) with protecdve features. 

An excise law placed internal revenue taxes on distilled liquors. 

A national bank was established in 1791. 

In the war between France and England Washington preserved 
the peace of the United States by a neutrality proclamation. 

In 1789 the French Revolution broke out in France. 

Genet, a minister of the new French Republic, sought (1793) to 
enlist the United States on the side of France, but he was recalled. 

The states of Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), and Tennessee 
(1796) were admitted to the Union. 

The first ten amendments to the Constitution were adopted (i 789V 

The Whisky Rebellion of 1794 was quickly ended by W'ashington. 

A treaty with England made in 1794 by John Jay was confirmed, 
except as to certain clauses, by the Senate. It caused widespread dis- 
satisfaction in the country, but for a time it averted war. 

By a treaty with Spain in 1795 we adjusted the northern boundar\- 
of Florida and secured the free navigation of the Mississippi. 

In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which revolutionized 
the cotton industr\- and fastened slaver)' on the country. 

The first cotton mill in the United States was opened in 1790 at 
Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 



246 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

John Adams's Administration, i 797-1801 

246. Election of Adams. The Federalists nominated John 
Adams for president ; the Democratic- Republicans chose Thomas 
Jefferson. Adams received seventy-one votes ^ and was elected 
president, while Jefferson had sixty-eight votes and was elected 
vice president.^ On March 4, 1797, Adams was inaugurated.^ 

247. Trouble with France, 1797. X Y Z Papers, 1798. 
The Jay treaty had aroused the indignation of the French gov- 
ernment, which sent its war vessels to capture our merchant- 
men. It also refused to receive our minister, Charles C. 
Pinckney, until the grievances of France had been redressed. 
To settle our difficulties. President Adams sent (1797) two 
special commissioners to join Pinckney, who was still in France. 

The French government did not receive them, but three 
envoys from Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, promised 
to stop these attacks on our shipping if the commissioners 
would give fifty thousand dollars to each of the five members 
of the French Directory, which was then the ruling power in 
France. The envoys also demanded that we assist France with 
a loan of money and disavow some expressions of President 
Adams towards the French government. 

1 As the Constitution then provided, the largest number of electoral votes 
elected the president and the next largest number of electoral votes elected 
the vice president. This provision has since been changed by the Twelfth 
Amendment. 

- " While the election was still in doubt, Jefferson wrote to Madison 
authorizing him in case of a tie between himself and Adams to solicit votes 
for the latter, as he was the senior and had always preceded him in the march 
of public life." — Channing, " United States," Vol. IV, p. 173 

3 John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735. He was elected a mem- 
ber of the First and Second Continental Congresses and aided materially in 
the adoption of the Declaration of Independence by Congress. From the 
first he advocated separation from Great Britain. After our government was 
established, he worked with great perseverance and success to secure the good 
will of Europe towards our new republic and was appointed minister to Great 
Britain. He died July 4, 1S26, with the words, " Thomas Jefferson still survives." 
But he was mistaken, for that illustrious statesman had passed away a few 
hours before. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 247 

This proposal was sent to Adams, who submitted it (March 5, 
1798) to Congress. Instead of the names of Talleyrand's three 
agents, the letters X, Y, Z were used. Hence the documents 
were called the X Y Z papers. 

This infamous proposal caused a burst of indignation through- 
out the land, and we were on the brink of war with France. 
The immortal words of Pinckney were on every lip, " Millions 
for defense, but not one cent for tribute." 

248. Preparations for War. In his message to Congress 
Adams said, " I will never send another minister to France 
without assurance that he will be received, respected, and 
honored as the representative of a great, free, powerful, and 
independent nation." The treaties with France were sus- 
pended ; a provisional army was raised, and Washington was 
made commander in chief. A navy department was created, 
and our vessels, fitted out for war, sailed to the French West 
Indies to destroy French commerce. The Constellation, under 
Commodore Truxtun, captured the French frigate hisnrgente. 
In the following two and a half years the Americans captured 
eighty-four French vessels. So vigorous a warfare did our 
little navy wage that the French Directory requested us to send 
another commission. Adams, anxious to avoid war, sent the 
commission, which made a treaty in 1800 with Napoleon, who 
had replaced the Directory in the control of France. 

249. Alien and Sedition Laws, 1798. The Federalists, aided 
by the excitement of the times and by the feeling against 
France, passed the so-called Alien and Sedition Laws. By 
the Alien Law the president had the power for two years to 
expel any foreigner from the country. This law was never in 
fact enforced, but many French refugees fled from the country.^ 

1 In i79Sthe Eleventh Amendment was added to the Constitution. A citizen 
of South Carolina had brought a suit against Georgia ( Chisholm against Georgia) 
for the payment of a debt. The United States Supreme Court asserted its 
right to hear the suit and entered judgment against the state of Georgia. The 
Eleventh Amendment was promptly passed, and a state cannot now be sued 
by a citizen of another state. 



248 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Sedition Law provided that any person, native or foreign, 
who unlawfully opposed any measure of the government or 
abused the president, Congress, or any member of the national 
government could be fined and imprisoned. This act was to 
be in force for three years. A few persons were fined and 
imprisoned under it. 

250. Action of Virginia and Kentucky, 1798. The Demo- 
cratic-Republicans strongly denounced these acts.^ Jefferson 
wrote a series of resolutions which were adopted by the legis- 
lature of Kentucky. Madison did the same for the legislature 
of Virginia. These resolutions were the first actual declaration 
of "state rights." They protested that the Alien and Sedition 
Laws were unconstitutional and that it was the duty of the states 
to interpose. In an additional Kentucky resolution of 1799 
nullification ^ was declared to be the rightful remedy. This 
doctrine of nullification, held so generally both by the North 
and by the South, was destined later to bear fruit and eventually 
to end in the Civil War. 

251. Death of Washington. The New Capital. On Decem- 
ber 14, 1799, George Washington died, after a brief illness, 
at his home at Mount Vernon. The entire nation was bowed 
with grief at the death of him who had been " first in war, 
first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." 

Napoleon ordered all the flags of France to be draped in 
black for ten days. 

1 The Democratic-Republicans maintained that the Alien Act violated the 
Bill of Rights, which guaranteed freedom of the person and a trial by jury. 
The Sedition Act, they declared, violated the right of freedom of speech and 
of the press as guaranteed by the First Amendment of the Constitution. 

2 The idea of the Kentucky resolution was, however, not the right of 
nullification by a single state but by a convention of the states. 

The Virginia resolutions did not suggest nullification, but implied the right 
of a state to pass on the constitutionality of an act of Congress. The nullifica- 
tion idea was not by any means confined to the Southern states. A few years 
later (1808) the legislature of Massachusetts declared that the Embargo Act 
is " in many respects unjust, oppressive, and unconstitutional, and not legally 
binding upon the citizens of this state." The same ideas obtained in Penn- 
sylvania in 1809 and in the Hartford Convention of 1814. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



249 



John Adams had been inaugurated in Philadelphia, to which 
the seat of government had been moved from New York in 
1 790. During his administration the new capital on the banks 
of the Potomac was occupied by Congress (November, 1800). 
To the territory was given the name District of Columbia. 
It was a tract of land ten miles square, given by Maryland and 




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THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON 

Virginia. The new city was named Washington, and was laid 
out on a spacious scale by a French engineer, Major I'Enfant. 

The corner stone of the Capitol was laid September 18, 
1793. In October, 1800, the government offices were trans- 
ferred from Philadelphia to Washington.^ 

252. Election of Jefferson. At the close of Adams's adminis- 
tration the P'ederalist party was rent by internal quarrels and 
weakened in the nation by the passage of the Alien and Sedi- 
tion Laws. Hamilton, though a P'ederalist, used all his great 
ability to defeat Adams, who had been nominated for reelection. 



1 A second census was taken this year (1800), which showed that the 
United States contained 5,308.438 inhabitants. 



250 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Democratic-Republicans nominated Jefferson and Burr. 
When the electoral votes were counted, it was found that all 
the Democratic-Republican electors had written Burr's name 
on the ballot with that of Jefferson. Each received, therefore, 
seventy-three votes. As there was no election, it was thrown 
into the House of Representatives, which thereupon elected 
Jefferson president and Burr vice president. 

This difficulty brought about a desire for a change in the 
method of electing a president. The Twelfth Amendment 
was passed (1804), and provided that the electors should cast 
a separate and distinct ballot for president and a separate and 
distinct ballot for vice president. It also provided that in case 
no candidate for the presidency should receive a majority of 
all the electoral votes cast for president, the House of Repre- 
sentatives, voting by states, should elect one of the three having 
the highest number of votes. 

One of the most important acts of Adams's administration 
was the appointment of John Marshall of Virginia as Chief 
Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. For thirty- 
four years he held this dignified office. Largely through his 
influence the Supreme Court rendered many far-reaching 
decisions sustaining the "broad " construction idea of the Con- 
stitution. He has been called by an eminent American jurist 
" a second maker of the Constitution." 

SUMMARY 

At the outset of Adams's administration, trouble with France 
(1797-179 8) aroused the country. The X Y Z negotiations brought 
us to the verge of war with France. 

The Alien and Sedition Laws were passed in 1798 and were 
generally condemned. 

The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions brought forward the idea 
of state rights and nullification. 

Washington died at his home at Mount Vernon in 1799. 

The capital was moved in 1800 from Philadelphia to the District 
of Columbia. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



251 



Jefferson's Administrations, i 801-1809 

253. The Democratic-Republican Party. On entering the 
presidency Jefferson 1 showed a democratic spirit. On the morning 
of his inauguration 
he walked to the 
Capitol surrounded 
by a few friends in- 
stead of riding in 
a coach with six 
horses as had been 
the custom. He 
desired the cordial 
friendship of all the 
people. The dress 
of former days was 
largely changed ; he 
himself discarded to 
a great extent the 
wigs, short breeches, 
silk stockings, and 
buckled shoes ; his 
motto was, "A vote 
for every man, 
whether he owns 
property or not." immma^ jiin :ks,,x 

He was in favor of 

freedom of speech and low taxes, and was a firm advocate of 
peace. He was opposed to the rapidly increasing power of the 

' Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia, April 13, 1743. He studied law, 
was elected to the House of Burgesses of Virginia, and became a member of 
the Continental Congress. With brilliant intellectual gifts he quickly rose to a 
leading position in national affairs. He was the author of the Declaration of 
Independence and of our decimal system of coinage. During the Revolution 
he served as governor of Virginia. He drafted the Religious Toleration Law. 
He was elected president in iSoo and reelected in 1S04. From his Virginia 
home he was called the Sage of Monticello. He died July 4, 1S26. 




252 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Federal Government, Jefferson represented the new ideas of 
the times and was deservedly popular. 

The Democratic-Republicans began many reforms. They cut 
down the army and the navy and began to pay off the national 
debt, which was reduced one third in eight years, besides paying 
for Louisiana and the war with the Barbary pirates. They re- 
pealed many objectionable laws and conducted the government 
on lines of the strictest economy, the entire expense being less 
than four million dollars a year. 

254. War on the African Pirates. For many years the Bar- 
bary States on the north coast of Africa — Morocco, Algiers, 
Tunis, and Tripoli — had made a trade of piracy. Practically 
all the nations of Europe paid them immense sums of money 
to leave their vessels alone. These pirates had given us a great 
deal of trouble by capturing our shipping and imprisoning our 
sailors. We had paid them a million dollars in tribute to allow 
our vessels to sail the Mediterranean, but they constantly 
demanded more, until in 1801 the ruler of Tripoli declared 
war against us. In 1803 a fleet was sent against these pirates. 
So vigorously did our brave sailors wage the war that the ruler 
of Tripoli asked for peace with us in 1805. 

255. Ohio admitted, 1802. West Point. The Northwest 
Territory in 1800 had been divided into the territory of Ohio 
and the territory of Indiana. In 1802 the territory of Ohio 
was admitted to the Union, being the first state formed from 
the Northwest Territory. Ohio had at this time- only forty-five 
thousand inhabitants. To the settlement around Fort Washing- 
ton was given the name of Cincinnati, As the boats multiplied 
on the Ohio River, Cincinnati became the leading city on 
this river. 

To secure officers for the army the national government 
decided to found a military school. The beautiful site of West 
Point, New York, at a spot where it overlooks the Highlands 
of the Hudson River, was selected, and the United States 
Military Academy was founded there in 1802. 




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WEST POINT 



254 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

256. The Louisiana Purchase, 1803. The greatest event of 
Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana, the 
vast territory extending from the Mississippi River to the Rocky 
Mountains and from the Gulf of Mexico to British America. 

In 1763 Spain received this territory from France as a 
reward for her aid in the war with England. Spain held it 
for thirty-seven years and in 1800, by a secret treaty, ceded 
it back to France. 

The West relied upon the Mississippi to carry its products 
to the sea, and one fourth of all our products passed down 
that great waterway in flatboats from Kentucky, Ohio, and 
Tennessee. Even with a weak power like Spain in possession 
of New Orleans, there was danger, as was seen when the 
Spanish governor of New Orleans refused, in 1802, to allow us 
any longer the right of deposit there. This cut off our Western 
products from the world's markets and aroused the entire West. 
Even at this time the Western settlers hoped to see the United 
States occupy the territory beyond the Mississippi. What 
Jefferson especially feared was the establishment of a strong 
power like F'rance at the mouth of the Mississippi. Speaking 
of New Orleans, he said, "There is one spot the possessor of 
which is our natural and habitual enemy." ^ Jefferson sent an 
envoy to France to buy New Orleans and that part of Louisiana 
east of the Mississippi.^ As a matter of fact Napoleon had 
already planned the reestablishment of an American colonial 
domain for France ; but, having failed in recovering control of 

1 Jefferson had grave doubts as to his right under the Constitution to buy 
territory. He took advantage, however, of his doubts and was sustained by 
the country. The Federalists opposed the purchase, as they feared the West 
would in the future put them in a minority. Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts 
advised the secession of New England and New York if Louisiana was 
admitted to the Union. 

2 In 1803 Chief Justice Marshall rendered the first of a series of decisions 
that have profoundly affected our national life. In that year the Supreme 
Court decided, in the case of JSIarbury against Madison, that the Supreme 
Court could set aside an act of Congress if that act, in the opinion of a 
majority of the justices of that Court, conflicted with the Constitution. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



255 



the French colony of Saint Dominique,^ where the slaves had 
revolted, he lost his interest in this colonial project and sold 
Louisiana to the United States for fifteen million dollars.^ The 
acquisition of Louisiana doubled our national domain. Napoleon 
said, on signing the treaty, 
" This accession of terri- 
tory establishes forever 
the power of the United 
States and gives to Eng- 
land a maritime rival 
destined to humble her 
pride." 

257. The Exploration 
of Lewis and Clark, 1804- 
1806. As nothing was 
actually known of this 
vast territory, Jefferson 
sent an expedition under 
Meriw^ether Lewis and 
William Clark to explore 
it. Leaving St. Louis 
(May 1 4, 1 804) with forty- 
five picked and trained 
men, they pushed their 
three boats up the Mis- 
souri halfway to its head- 
waters, to the village of the Mandan Indians near the site of 
the present city of Bismarck, North Dakota. Here they decided 
to go into winter quarters for five months. Along the route 
they had secured plenty of food, as there was an abundance of 

1 Now Haiti. The leader of the revolt, which began in 1795, was Toussaint 
L'Ouverture. Read Wendell I'hillips's celebrated oration on this daring leader. 

- From this territory have since been formed the states of Louisiana, 
Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, 
Oklahoma, a large part of the states of Minnesota and Colorado, and parts of 
Wyoming and Montana. 




E LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION AT 
THE SUMMIT OF THE ROCKIES 



256 ESSENTIALS OE AMERICAN HISTORY 

deer, wild turkeys, elk, buffalo, geese, and fish. In the spring 
(April, 1805) they resumed their journey up the river and 
after twenty days reached the Yellowstone. 

Late in May they saw the snowy peaks of the Rocky Moun- 
tains on the distant horizon. 1 After endless toils they crossed 
the mountains '^ and embarked on the Columbia. They reached 
the mouth of the Columbia (November, 1805) after a journey 
of four thousand miles and saw the Pacific stretching before 
them. On their return to St. Louis (September 23, 1806) they 
published an account of their wonderful journey. In the 
entire two years, notwithstanding the hardships and dangers, 
only one man had died. 

258. Russia on the Pacific. In 1725 Peter the Great gave 
a commission to a Dane named Vitus Bering to cross Siberia 
and explore the north Pacific. During the next sixteen years 
Bering was engaged in this work. He discovered the strait 
that now bears his name and explored the shores of Alaska 
and the coast of the present British Columbia. Bering's ex- 
plorations led to great Russian activity in the hunt for the 
valuable sea otter that swarmed in these waters. The Russians 
pushed down the Pacific coast, founding Sitka in 1 800.^ A post 
w^as built on Bodega Bay in 181 3, where they came in touch 
with the Spanish missions of California. A few miles north- 
ward they built a fort (1820) which they named P^ort Ross. 
The Russians now claimed all of the Pacific coast north of the 
Spanish territory for their flag. 

1 The French fur trader La Verendrye and his sons had seen the Big Horn 
chain of the Rocky Mountains seventy-five years before Lewis and Clartc. 

- The expedition was greatly aided by an Indian squaw, Sacajawea, a Snal<e 
Indian of the upper Columbia country, who had married and was living among 
the Mandans. She accompanied the expedition westward until it arrived among 
her own people. A statue to her memory has been erected in Portland, Oregon. 

3 It was an early belief that a Greek navigator, Juan de Fuca, sailed under 
the flag of Spain and discovered in 1592 the strait that now bears his name. 
In 1775 Ilaceta, a Spaniard, discovered the mouth of the Columbia, but was 
unable to enter it because of contrary winds, the strong outflowing torrent 
of water, and an outbreak of scurvy which killed many of the crew. 



THE PERIOD OF UNIOX 



257 



259. The English Pacific 
Exploration. In the mean- 
time the EngHsh laid claim 
to the north Pacific coast 
through the voyage of 
Drake in 1579. In 1776 
James Cook was sent on a 
voyage of exploration. He 
passed along the coast of 
Alaska, around the Aleu- 
tian Islands, through Bering 
Strait to the Arctic Ocean. 
He returned to the Hawai- 
ian Islands, where he was 
killed by the natives. 

In 1792 an English com- 
mander, George Vancouver, 
explored Puget Sound and 
claimed the surrounding 
country for Great Britain. 
He had sailed past the 
mouth of the Columbia 
River, but had failed to 
notice it. 

260. American Explora- 
tion. To secure some of 
the profits of the fur trade 
and fisheries, Boston mer- 
chants sent out vessels into 
the north Pacific. Captain 
Robert Gray, sailing on one 
of these vessels, the Co- 
luvibia, discovered (May 11, 
1792) the mouth of the 
Columbia and rave to it the 




C.MendooIno 

Fort Ross r 11'^ 
Bodega Bay\Ji f /t 

"Z, San FranciscoYx :y'% i I' , 



KLSSIAX KXI'LOKATION AND SliTTLE- 
MEXT IN THE NORTHWEST 

name of his vessel. Grav claimed 



25! 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



all the country drained by its waters for the United States. This 
gave us our first title to Oregon. The expedition of Lewis and 
Clark gave us a second title. 

The report of this expedition stirred up the fur traders, and 
John Jacob Astor founded the Pacific Fur Company, with a 
line of trading posts extending from the Missouri to the 
Columbia. Near the mouth of the latter river, in 1 8 1 1 , Astoria, 




i:^ii^=- 



the first United States colony on the Pacific, was founded. 
This was a third title to the Oregon country .^ 

261. Death of Hamilton. Aaron Burr. The whole country 
was shocked at this time to hear that the vice president, 
Aaron Burr, had killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel (July 
II, 1804). Burr's political career was at an end. George 
Clinton had been elected ( 1 804) vice president and took Burr's 
place when Jefferson was inaugurated for his second term. 
Burr went West and formed plans, the meaning of which are 



1 Other expeditions were under way at this time. Lieutenant Zebuion M. 
Pike was sent northward along the Mississippi in 1805 to find its headwaters. 
In 1806 he was ordered to explore the country of the great West. He dis- 
covered Pikes Peak. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



259 



not exactly known. It was claimed he hoped to establish a 

new nation, of which he would be the head. This nation would 

be made up of the Mississippi Valley country with Louisiana. 

Burr expected, it was thought, to add Mexico to his domain, 

as he hoped to wrest that country from its Spanish rulers. 

Burr induced General James Wilkinson, who commanded the 

United States army at New 

Orleans, to join his scheme, 

but Wilkinson revealed the 

plot to Jefferson. On his way 

to New Orleans, Burr was 

arrested for treason and taken 

to Richmond, where he was 

tried. He was not convicted, 

and after a residence of some 

years in Europe he /eturned 

to New York City, where he 

died in obscuritv in 1836. 

262. War between France 
and England. Right of Search. 
W^ar broke out once more ^ 
between France and England 
in May, 1803, and all Europe 

except Turkey was in arms. In 1 806 England declared a blockade 
of the northwestern coast of France. Napoleon answered by the 
Berlin and Milan decrees,^ which forbade the ships of any neutral 
nation to enter British ports, England followed at once with 
decrees, called " Orders in Council," which forbade neutral vessels 
to enter the ports of France or of any nation in league with France. 
As the United States was the leading neutral commercial country-, 
this action exposed our shipping to capture by both nations. 




AARON BURR 



1 France had declared war on England February i, 1793. This war con- 
tinued under Napoleon until the Peace of Amiens in iSo2. In 1S03 war was 
resumed and continued until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 at Waterloo. 

2 They were so called from the cities from which they were issued. 



26o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

England went still further. Relying on her large navy, she 
maintained the right to stop and search American vessels and 
to take from them any sailors she decided to be Englishmen. 
Her outrages reached their climax when the British frigate 
Leopard fired (June 27, 1807) upon the American frigate Chesa- 
peake and killed and wounded twenty men. The Chesapeake, 
being unprepared for action, surrendered, and the English took 
off four seamen, one of whom they hanged as a deserter. ^ 

263. TheEmbargo Act, 1807. The Non-Intercourse Act, 1809. 
Congress now passed an act forbidding American vessels to 
leave our shores for foreign ports. ^ This was called an em- 
bargo and was passed to stop trade with England and France. 
It was thought this would cause great distress in Europe and 
would compel England and France to respect our rights. It 
may be recalled that a similar measure had been effective in 
bringing England to repeal the Stamp Act. This time, 
however, the embargo was not successful. If it injured British 
commerce, it injured our own much more. It caused great 
suffering and was highly unpopular in the Eastern states. The 
opposition to the embargo in New England was so great that 
prominent men in that section began to discuss secession from 
the Union. The law was repealed in 1809. The Non-Inter- 
course Act was now passed. By this act all commerce with 
Great Britain and France and their colonies was illegal. Com- 
merce was permitted, however, with all countries not under the 
control of France and England. There was at once an active 
and very profitable trade opened with Spain and Portugal. 

An important result of these acts was to turn the attention 
of American merchants from commerce to manufacturing, a 
change destined to bring about wonderful results. 

1 So great was the popular indignation at this outrage that Jefferson 
declared, '" Never since the battle of Lexington have I seen this country in 
such a state of exasperation as at present." 

^ Under the Enforcement Act of iSoS, coasting vessels, before they were 
allowed to leave harbor, were required to give a bond of six times the value 
of ship and cargo that their cargoes would be landed in a United States port. 



THE PERIOD OF UNIOX 



261 



264. Moving Vessels by Steam. Fulton's Clermont, 1807. As 

early as 1785 John Fitch had built a steamboat in Philadelphia. 
Ten years later he operated in New York City a steamboat 
with a screw propeller. In the spring of 1807 the Clermont, a 




ROtiRICSS OF STEAM NAVIGATION 



paddle-wheel steamer of twenty tons, designed by Robert P^ulton, 
was launched on the Hudson at New York. It was one hun- 
dred and thirty-three feet long and eighteen feet wide. It made a 
successful trip to Albany, one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty- 
two hours, — the first long voyage ever made by a steamboat. ^ 



^ The legislature of New York granted to Fulton and Livingston a monop- 
oly on all the waters of the state of New ^'ork for boats moved by steam or fire. 
The monopoly was overthrown by the Supreme Court [Gihlwns against Ogden) 
in 1S24. This decisiort laid the basis of the law of interstate commerce. 



262 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

This wonderful feat opened the way for steam navigation on 
our lakes and rivers. Four years later a boat was built at 
Pittsburgh to run on the Ohio and the Mississippi, and in 1818 
another was speeding over the waters of the Great Lakes.^ 

265. Importation of Slaves forbidden, 1808. Election of 
Madison. The Constitution denied Congress the power to pro- 
hibit the importation of slaves before 1 808. President Jefferson,^ 
in a message to Congress, recommended the passage of a law 
prohibiting the importation of slaves. This law was enacted in 
1808. Only five dissenting votes were recorded in the Senate. 
Thus the first step toward abolishing slavery was taken. ^ 

Although the legislatures of eight states invited Jefferson to 
accept the presidency for the third term, he refused, and James 
Madison was easily elected fourth president of the United 
States. George Clinton was elected vice president. 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of Jefferson's administrations (i 801 -1809) were 
as follows : 

Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803. 

The expedition of Lewis and Clark explored (1804-1806) the 
Louisiana territory and the great West to the Pacific Ocean. 

The pirates of northern Africa were punished and repressed 
(1803-1805). 

1 In 18 19 the Atlantic Ocean was first crossed by a steamship, the Savannah. 
This vessel was three hundred and eighty tons burden and was in reahty a 
sailing vessel with an auxiliary engine. She crossed from Savannah, Georgia, 
to Liverpool in twenty-five days. She used steam only eighty hours in all, de- 
pending upon her sails for the remainder of the voyage. She was chased by 
an English revenue cutter off the coast of Ireland for a day and a half, as the 
captain of the cutter thought the SavannaJi was on fire. 

^ Jefferson believed in the gradual abolition of slavery. In 1821 he wrote, 
" Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than that these people 
are to be free." 

* In 1809 the first newspaper in the Northwest appeared when The Michi- 
gan Essay or Impartial Obse7~i'er was published at Detroit by the Reverend 
Gabriel Richard, who had earlier kept his people in touch with world affairs 
by having a crier announce the news each Sunday at the church doors. In 
1823 Father Richard represented Michigan as territorial delegate in Congress. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 263 

In 1807 the Clermont, designed by Robert Fulton, sailed to Albany. 
The Embargo (1807) and Non-Intercourse (1809) acts were 
passed. 

The importation of slaves was forbidden in 1808. 

People to knoxo about .• 

Hamilton, Jefferson, IJishop Carroll, Boone, Wayne, Whitney, 
Slater, Genet, Adams, Marshall, Fulton. 

Map work : 

Study on the map the location of Washington, the West Indies, 
Algiers, Morocco, Tunis, Tripoli, Columbia River, Yellowstone River, 
Sitka, Fort Ross. 

Draw a map of the Northwest Territory. 

Draw a map of the Lotiisiana Purchase. 

READINGS 

Histories. Adams, H., History of the United States, \o\. I. Allen, 
G. W., Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs. Bassett, J. S., The Fed- 
eralist System. Chaxning, E., The Jeffersonian System. Paris, J. T., 
Makers of Our History. Ford, W. C, George Washington. Gavarre, C., 
History of Louisiana. Griswoi^d, R. W., The Republican Court. Hos.mer, 
J. K., The Louisiana Purchase. JoHXSOX, A., Union and Democracy. 
Lee, J. M., History of American fournalis)n. Leo.n'ard, L. A., Life of 
Charles Carroll of Carrollton. McCaleb, W. F., The Aaron Burr Con- 
spiracy. Merwix, II. C, Life offefferson. Ogg, F. A., The Opening of 
the Mississippi. ScHOULER, J., History of the United States under the 
Constitution, Vol. II. Thomas fefferson. Sumxer, W. G., Alexander 
Hamilton. Wheeler, O. D., The Trail of Lewis and Clark. 

Sources. Mlzzev, Readings in American History, p. 1S3 (America 
the Land of Opportunity); p. iSS (The Inauguration of the Government); 
p. 192 (Jefferson versus Hamilton); p. 205 (The Kentucky and A'irginia 
Resolutions); p. 212 (The Discovery of the Columbia River); p. 218 
(Lewis and Clark Expedition). 

Fiction. Allex, J. L, The Choir Invisible (a story of Kentucky in the 
early days of the last century). Athertox, G., The Conqueror (an inter- 
esting tale of the life of Hamilton). Bacheller, I. A., D'ri and I (a story 
of Canada during the Reign of Terror). B.ARR, A. E., The Maid of Maiden 
Lane (life in New York in 1791). Trinity Bells [^ story of the war with 



264 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Tripoli). Bkllamy, E., The Duke of Sfockbridge (a story of Shays's 
Rebellion). Carpextek, E. C, The Code of Victor Jallot (a story of New 
Orleans). Cooke, J. E., Leather and Silk (Virginia about iSoo). 
Eggleston, Edward, The Circuit Rider U tale of early life in the Middle 
West). Hale, E. E., East and IVest (settlement of Ohio). Mitchell, 
Weir, Red City (a tale of Philadelphia in Washington's second adminis- 
tration). Pidgin, C. F., Bkn?ierhasset{2. graphic tale of Burr's conspiracy). 
Proctor, E. D., Sacajawea (a poem on the Indian girl in the Lewis and 
Clark Expedition). vSeawell, M. E., Decatur and Sojners (an excellent 
picture of the Tripoli war). Smith, John Talbot, The Black Ca?di/ial 
(a tale of Napoleon and Betty Patterson). Stowe, H. B., Old Time Folks 
(a tale of life in a Massachusetts village). 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. What were the principal features of the Alien and Sedition Laws.? 
In whose administration were they passed.'' 

2. Give an account of the explorations of Lewis and Clark, and state 
two important results of their expedition. 

3. What troubles with France arose in the administration of John 
Adams.? How were the troubles finally settled.? 

4. State the principal features of Hamilton's plan for establishing and 
maintaining the financial credit of the United States. 

5. Mention the political parties that resulted from the adoption of the 
Constitution, and show how these parties differed in regard to one 
important principle. 

6. In whose administration was Louisiana purchased by the United 
States? Give an account of the purchase. 

7. Tell briefly about the following: {a) the Jay Treaty of 1795; 
{b) the X Y Z papers; {c) the treaty with Spain in 1795 ; {d) the plans of 
Burr in the West and South. 

8. What was the Whisky Rebellion? How did Washington treat it? 
What principle of our government was at stake ? 

9. What great invention was made in Washington's first adminis- 
tration ? What was its effect ? 

10. " Thus within a year and a half Hamilton had secured, in the face 
of the opposition of the state-rights party, the passage of four great meas- 
ures, — assumption, funding of the debt, the excise, and the bank charter, — 
all tending to the centralization of power." Show how each of Hamilton's 
measures tended to centralize power. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 265 

Jamks Madison's Ad.ministratioxs,^ 1809-18 17 

266. Trouble with Great Britain and France. The English 
maintained the principle, '" Once an EngHshman, always an 
Englishman." The United States maintained the principle, 
then novel but now generally accepted, that a man may 
change his allegiance and become a citizen of another coun- 
try. To recruit her navy, therefore, England sent war ships 
up and down our coast, overhauling our vessels and taking off 
seamen whom she claimed to be her subjects. Most of these 
were probably English born, although frequently they were 
native American citizens. In eight years almost six thousand 
sailors had been taken from our vessels, and no less than 
nine hundred vessels had been searched. 

Great Britain and France were still at war with each other, 
and the Non-Intercourse Act forbade trade with either of 
them. Soon after Madison's inauguration the British minister 
in Washington declared that Great Britain would withdraw 
her Orders in Council. The Non-Intercourse Act was there- 
upon suspended. At once hundreds of vessels loaded with 
goods sailed to sea. The British government, however, did 
not approve of the acts of her minister, and when the vessels 
arrived with their valuable cargoes they were not allowed to 
land. The Non-Intercourse Act therefore. again went into effect. 
In 18 10 Congress declared that if either France or Great Britain 
would revoke the decrees against, our shipping, the Non-Inter- 
course Act would be put in force against the country that would 
not revoke ; Napoleon announced immediately that he would 
recall the decrees, and Great Britain promised to do the 

1 James Madison was born in \'irginia in 1751. He was admitted to the bar 
and later was elected a member of the Continental Congress and of the Con- 
stitutional Convention. Madison's state papers are among the ablest produc- 
tions of American statesmanship. The first draft of the Constitution and the 
first ten amendments embodied his ideas, and hence he has been called " the 
Father of the Constitution." lie was Secretary of State for eight years under 
Jefferson, lie was elected president in iSoS and was reelected in 1S12. He 
died in 1836. 



266 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



same after Napoleon had acted. Neither France nor England 
did as they had promised, however, and our difficulties with 
France and Great Britain increased daily. 

267. The President and the Little Belt. Battle of Tippecanoe. 
Declaration of War. I n May, 1 8 1 1 , the English cruiser Gucrrierc ^ 
stopped an American vessel near New York Harbor and took off 
an American sailor. The frigate President was sent at once in 
search of the Gnerriere, but met instead the 
small British twenty-two-gun ship Little 
Belt. The President at once opened fire 
and easily captured the British vessel. 

In the meantime the Indians in the 
Northwest, incited by the English, had 
taken to the warpath against the American 
settlers, who were advancing in large num- 
bers into the Indian hunting grounds. 

The Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, had 
united many of the tribes in a strong con- 
federacy and had ravaged the frontiers. It was believed the 
British were furnishing them with arms and supplies. General 
Harrison, the governor of Indiana Territory, was sent against 
them. While Tecumseh was absent in the South the Indians 
attempted to overwhelm Harrison by a sudden attack, but he 
defeated them (November 7, 181 1) at Tippecanoe in western 
Indiana. Tecumseh later joined the English army in Canada. 
Affairs had now reached the point where war was inevi- 
table, and on June 18, 18 12, hostilities were declared against 
Great Britain.^ 




THE BATTLE OF TIPPE- 
CANOE 



1 Guerriere (ghe ree air') means '" warrior." It had been captured from the 
French, which accounts for its name. 

- In iSii the charter of the First Bank of the United States was about to 
expire. It had been very successful, but there was great opposition to it on 
the part of the Democratic-RepubHcans and of the state banks. Henry Clay 
opposed the renewal of the charter. The attempt to renew the charter failed 
in Congress, and the affairs of the bank were wound up. At once numerous 
state banks sprang up. As soon as the War of 1S12 began they failed, leaving 
the country in a desperate financial plight. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 267 

268. Causes of the War. The chief causes of the war were : 

1. Impressment of American sailors and search of Ameri- 
can ships. 

2. Violation of our rights of commerce by seizing American 
cargoes and refusing to recognize the principle that neutral 
ships make neutral goods. 

3. IMockade of our ports by English vessels. 

4. Incitation of the Indians to attack our frontier settle- 
ments, and furnishing arms to them. 

The rallying cry of the war was "' Free Trade and Sailors' 
Rights." ^ This meant freedom for our merchant ships to go 
to any ports they wished and protection of our seamen from 
seizure by the British. 

The Americans were poorly prepared to enter the war. 
The American army numbered less than seven thousand men, 
mostly untrained, to oppose the well-disciplined English forces 
many times larger. Our small navy was opposed to the largest 
navy in the world. Even the country was not united, as New 
England vigorously opposed the war. England, however, at 
this time was in a life-and-death struggle with Napoleon and 
could release only a part of her forces for use in America. 

269. Hull's Surrender. Battle of Queenstown Heights, 
October 13, 181 2, The objective point in the campaign was 
the capture of Canada, which, it was thought, could be easily 
accomplished.^ Three armies were raised for this purpose : 
the first, under Hull, was to march from Detroit; the second, 

1 In Congress many young men appeared at this time who were destined 
to direct our national affairs for many years. Among them were Henry Clay, 
of Kentucky, who soon became speaker of the House of Representatives, and 
John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. They were so anxious for war that they 
were called " War Hawks." Daniel Webster, of New Hampshire and later of 
Massachusetts, appeared in Congress at this time. 

- It was thought the Canadians would throw off their allegiance to England 
and join the United States. In this our statesmen were sorely disappointed. 
So easy was the conquest of Canada deemed to be that Henry Clay declared 
in the House of Representatives that he believed " the militia of Kentucky 
are alone competent to place Montreal and Upper Canada at your feet." 



268 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



under Van Rensselaer, was to cross the Niagara River and 
take Oueenstovvn ; the third, under Dearborn, was to go up 
the valley of Lake Champlain and, uniting with the other 
two, capture Montreal and Quebec. The whole plan was 
a signal failure. General Hull set out with two thousand men 
from central Ohio on his arduous march through the unbroken 
forests to Detroit. When he reached there he learned that 
Mackinaw had fallen into the hands of the British. 

He entrenched 
at Fort Detroit, 
but he was at 
once besieged by 
the British under 
General Brock 
and by the Lidians 
under their chief 
Tecumseh. Hull 
was summoned to 
surrender. 

Anxious, as he 
declared, to save 
the women and 
children from the scalping knives of the Indians, he did so with- 
out firing a gun.^ Thus not only Detroit but all of Michigan 
Territory passed to the British. Fort Dearborn, on the site of 
the present city of Chicago, fell at the same time. 

The second army, under General Van Rensselaer, crossed 
the Niagara River, and attacking the British at Oueenstown 
Heights (October 13, 18 12), drove them from their position. 
The American general, however, failed to receive reenforce- 
ments because the New York militia refused to leave that 
state, and his army was surrounded and captured. 

1 Hull was tried for cowardice by court-martial and sentenced to be shot, 
but the President pardoned him for his distinguished services during the War 
of the Revolution. 




THE WAR IN THE EAST 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 269 

General Dearborn started up the* Hudson valley and through 
Lake Champlain to the Canadian border. The defeat of Hull 
and Van Rensselaer entirely destroyed the plan of the attack 
on Montreal, and Dearborn and his army returned. 

270. The War on the Sea. The Constitution and the Guerriere. 
Other Naval Battles. Though the army had completely failed in 
its plan to invade Canada, our little navy upheld gloriously the 
flag of the republic. In 18 12 we had only seventeen seagoing 



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THE COXSTITU /liKY {(lf./> IKOX.S I />KS) 

vessels, carrying four hundred and forty-two guns and about 
five thousand men. England, "the mistress of the seas," at 
the same time had ten hundred and forty-eight ships, carrying 
twenty-seven thousand eight hundred guns and one hundred and 
fifty thousand men. On the American coast alone England 
had one hundred and seven ships. 

Despite such odds, our brave sailors went forth to strive for 
victor)\ On August 19, 18 12, the Constitution, under Captain 
Hull, nephew of General Hull, captured the Gncrrihr. Erom 
that time the Constitution was known as Old Ironsides. 

During this year the British frigate Macedonian was captured 
by the United States, and the Frolic was captured by the Wasp. 

While the war was in progress President Madison was re- 
nominated by the Democratic- Republicans and elected. 



270 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



271. The Chesapeake and the Shannon. The Privateers. The 

British ship Shannon fought (June i, 18 13) the American frigate 
Chesapeake outside Boston Harbor and captured her. Captain 
Lawrence fell ; his dying words were, " Don't give up the ship." 
Privateers were commissioned by the President to prey 
on English commerce. In seven months over three hundred 
British vessels were captured by them, and during the war 
over seventeen hundred ships were taken. 

272. Raisin River Mas- 
sacre, 1813. Fort Meigs. In 
the new plans for the inva- 
sion of Canada the army was 
organized in three divisions. 
It was intended that the first 
should retake Michigan Terri- 
tory ; the second, the Niagara 
district ; the third, the Lake 
Champlain valley. All three 
divisions were then to invade 
Canada. General Harrison, in 
charge of the western division, 
moved northward towards 
Detroit. A part of his forces, 
under Winchester, was defeated (January 22, 181 3) on the 
Raisin River (near the present site of the city of Monroe, 
Michigan) by the British and Indians. The British general, 
Proctor, did not adequately protect the American prisoners 
from the Indians, and many were massacred. Only forty 
were saved from the battle. Henceforth the war cry of the 
Americans was, " Remember the River Raisin." 

In the spring of 1813 Proctor, with the aid of Tecumseh, 
besieged General Harrison at Fort Meigs on the Maumee 
River. Two attacks were made without success ; thereupon 
the British turned and attacked P'ort Stephenson on the lower 
Sandusky. The attack was an utter failure, and the enemy 




OLIVER HAZARD PERRY 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



271 



retreated. Michigan, however, was still in the hands of the 
British. These reverses led the Indians to lose faith in British 
prowess, and many promptly deserted. 

273. Battle of Lake Erie, 1813. The navy, which had won 
so many victories at sea, now achieved a most signal triumph on 
Lake Erie. It was seen that it would be necessary to control the 
Cireat Lakes before any expedition into Canada could be success- 
ful. On September 10, 181 3, Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry, 
with nine vessels, many of them built on the lake shore, attacked 
the Britisli fleet, which was made 
up of six vessels larger than 
Perry's and having greater gun 
power. The battle was a com- 
plete defeat for the British. 
Perry sent to General Harrison 
this message : " W^e have met the 
enemy and they are ours : two 
ships, two brigs, one schooner, 
and one sloop." As we now 
controlled Lake Erie*, the Brit- 
ish were compelled to abandon 
Detroit, and the territory sur- 
rendered by Hull was recovered. 

274. Battle with the Creek Indians. Harrison's Victory 
on the Thames. The Creek Indians in the South now went 
on the warpath. They had been aroused by Tecumseh and 
supplied with arms by British agents. Eort Mimms, forty 
miles from Mobile, was attacked (August 30, 181 3) and all its 
occupants, two hundred and fifty men, women, and children, 
massacred. With troops from Georgia, Mississippi, and Ten- 
nessee, General Andrew Jackson marched against the Indians. 
He attacked them (March 29, 1S14) at Horseshoe Bend, 
or Tohopeka, on a branch of the Alabama River. The 
Indians were completely defeated and their power broken. 
Many fled into Spanish territory, and the United States took 







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272 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



possession of a large portion of their lands under a treaty 
which Jackson compelled them to make (August 9, 18 14). 

In the meantime General Harrison took advantage of 
Perry's victory to invade Canada, On the banks of the 
Thames (October 5, 18 13) he routed the English forces under 
Proctor and Tecumseh. By these victories of Perry and 
Harrison we controlled Lake Eric, Michigan, and Upper 
Canada, Ohio was freed from the danger of invasion, and 
the Indian confederacy was destroyed. 

275. Battle of Lake Cham- 
plain, September 11, 1814. The 
American army under General 
Brown crossed the Niagara River, 
captured Fort Erie, and defeated 
the English at Chippewa (July 5, 
1 8 14). Three weeks later the 
Americans attacked the strong 
position of the British at Lundy's 
Lane (July 25) within sound of 
Niagara Falls and won a partial 
victory. The British now planned 
an expedition down Lake Cham- 
plain, following the route taken 
by Burgoyne thirty-seven years before. Sir George Prevost, with 
a land force of eleven thousand men, marched southward to 
Plattsburg, while a naval force of seventeen vessels sailed down 
the lake to support him. The British fleet met (September 11, 
1 8 14) the American squadron of fourteen vessels under 
Commodore Macdonough, 

The fight lasted two and one-half hours, when the whole 
British fleet surrendered. In the meantime the British land 
forces met General McComb, who had taken a position with 
two thousand men on the bank of the Saranac River. The 
British tried in vain to cross, the fire of the Americans sweep- 
ing their ranks at every point. At last, hearing of the disaster 




THE WAR IN THE SOUTHWEST 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



273 



to the fleet, they retreated in such haste that the sick and 
wounded, as well as large military stores, were left in the 
hands of the Americans. 

276. Burning of Washington, 1814. The overthrow of 
Napoleon allowed the British to send thousands of well- 
trained troops to America. In retaliation for a raid into 
Canada, during which the Parliament buildings at York (or 

Toronto) were destroyed, Vice 

Admiral Cochrane gave orders to 
lay waste the coast towns. As a 
result of this order the British 
turned their attention to Chesa- 
peake Bay. Landing their forces, 
the British, under General Ross, 
marched without difficulty against 
the capital of the nation. 

On August 24, 18 14, General 
Ross entered Washington and 
burned the Capitol and other pub- 
lic buildings. He next marched 
to Baltimore, while his fleet sailed 
up the bay and bombarded Fort 
McHenry, which guarded the 

approaches to that city. For twenty-five hours shot and shell 
rained on the fort in vain. At the end of the bombardment 
" the flag was still there." ^ The land forces attacked the city, 
but were repulsed. Ross was killed and the British retreated. 

277. Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815. The English 
now gathered a large force under Sir Edward Pakenham 
to attack New Orleans and secure control of the Mississippi. 
The British hoped to win the aid of the French and Spanish 




THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



1 Francis Scott Key was detained that night on one of the British ships, 
whither he had gone to secure the release of some prisoners. By the flash of 
the guns, while watching eagerly the flag still flying over Fort Mc Henry, he 
wrote our national hymn, "The Star- Spangled Banner." 



274 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



inhabitants of this section, as these inhabitants were not kindly 
disposed to American rule. By controlling the Mississippi 
the British hoped to secure in the treaty of peace the entire 
Louisiana country for themselves. 

General Andrew Jackson marched to meet them. Besides 
a fleet of fifty vessels the English had twelve thousand trained 




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JACKSON SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS 

soldiers, many of them having fought against Napoleon. 
Jackson had six thousand men behind breastworks, mostly 
undisciplined troops but superb marksmen. The British ad- 
vanced (January 8, 1815), but were completely defeated with 
a loss of twenty-six hundred men. The American loss in 
killed and wounded was only seventy-one. 

278. The Treaty of Peace. The treaty of peace between 
Great Britain and the United States had been signed at Ghent, 
in Belgium (December 24, 18 14), but the news of this action 
did not reach the United States until after the battle of New 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 275 

Orleans, as the telegraph did not exist at this time and the 
news was brought in sailing vessels. In the peace treaty 
nothing was said about the matters that caused the war. The 
impressment of our sailors, neutral rights, or blockades were 
not mentioned, and ICngland did not bind herself to give up 
the right of search. Our naval victories, however, had rendered 
that proceeding so dangerous that for the future our ships 
were not molested. Other questions, such as boundaries and 
the ending of the Indian Wars, were referred to arbitration. 

279. Results of the War of 181 2. While the war cost two 
hundred millions of dollars and the lives of thirty thousand 
men. it produced beneficial results. 

ICurope learned that we were well able to take care of our- 
selves, and our ships and sailors could hereafter cross the seas 
in peace. Another effect of the war was tlie development 
of manufactures. The war tariff, the embargo, the non- 
intercourse laws, and the high price of freights had turned 
the capitalists from commerce to manufactures, which had 
increased to a wonderful extent, especially in cotton goods.^ 
In 1 8 14 Francis C. Lowell established at Waltham, Massa- 
chusetts, a cotton mill, where for the first time all the processes 
of spinning, weaving, and finishing were carried on under one 
roof. Other large factories were built at Lowell, Lawrence, 
and Fall River. To protect these industries from English 
competition at the close of the war, a duty of twenty-five per 
cent was laid on cotton and woolen goods imported from 
abroad, and the protective system was thereby established. ^ 

During the war the necessity for better communication by 
means of good roads and canals between the sections of the 

' There were only four cotton factories in the United States in 1S03. In 
1S15 there were no less than five hundred thousand spindles in operation, 
while the consumption of cotton had risen from five hundred bales in 1800 
to ninety thousand bales in 181 5. 

2 This was the tariff of 1S16, practically the first of our purely protective 
tariffs. It was bitterly opposed bv Daniel Webster, who felt that it imperiled 
the commercial interests of New England. 



2/6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

country was plainly seen. This need led to a renewed demand 
for "internal improvements," with money to be raised from 
increased tariff rates, and further developed the growing 
protective system. 

The War of 1812 has been called the Second War 
of Independence.. We were at last becoming independent of 
Europe not only in political ideas and theories but also in 
our industrial life. 

Since the termination of the War of 18 12 over a century 
has elapsed, during which time the United States and England 
have been at peace. Along the entire boundary line of Canada 
and the United States, a distance of three thousand miles, not 
a fort exists, nor has there been an armed squadron on the 
Great Lakes. This is in striking contrast to conditions in 
Europe, where the boundaries of practically all the countries 
bristle with fortresses, manned day and night, year after year, 
by armed men. This condition has virtually turned Europe 
into a military camp. 

280. The Hartford Convention, 1814. While the war was 
in progress it had been violently opposed by many of the 
New England Federalists. Massachusetts and Connecticut 
had withdrawn their militia from the national service at the 
moment of the nation's greatest peril. The Federalists 
obstructed the loan of money to the national treasury, and the 
English troops and ships received large supplies from the 
New England states. Under the influence of 'the Federalist 
leaders the legislature of Massachusetts invited the states of 
New England to send delegates to a convention. Twenty- 
seven' delegates met at Hartford, December 15, 18 14. 

The meetings were secret ; and it was believed that the 
delegates were plotting a disruption of the Union, for the 
convention resolved it was the right and duty of a state under 
certain circumstances to nullify an act of Congress. The 
convention also suggested amendments to the Constitution, 
designed to diminish the influence of the South in national 



THE PKRIOI) OF UNION 277 

politics and to make the suspension of foreign commerce or 
the declaration of war by Congress more difficult.^ 

The bitterest feeling was aroused throughout the country 
against the Federalists. Nothing resulted from the conven- 
tion, -as peace soon followed, but it brought about the ruin 
of the Federalist party. 

281. Admission of Louisiana, Indiana, and Mississippi. In 
18 1 2 the southern part of the Louisiana Purchase, which was 
called the Territory of Orleans, was admitted to the Union as 
the state of Louisiana. It was the first state made from the 
vast tract purchased from LYance. 

In 1805 Michigan Territory was formed from the northern 
part of Indiana Territory, Your years later Illinois Territory 
was formed from the western part. These cessions reduced 
Indiana Territory to its present limits, and it was admitted as 
a state in 18 16. In the following year Mississippi was added 
as a state to the Union, Settlements which were destined to 
become great cities now began to be made. In 18 18 Solo- 
mon Juneau founded Milwaukee on the west shore of Lake 
Michigan, 



The leading events of Madison's administrations (1809-1S17) 
were as follows : 

The second war with Great Britain began in 18 12 and ended in 
18 1 5. It was caused mainly by the impressment of our seamen and 
by the violation of our rights of commerce as neutrals. Our national 
hymn, " The Star-Spangled Banner," was written during this war. 

The Hartford Convention of 18 14 aroused great indignation in 
the nation and brought about the downfall of the Federalist party. 

Louisiana (1812), Indiana (1S16). and Mississippi (1817) were 
admitted to the Union. 

1 Other amendments were proposed to require a two-thirds vote of both 
Houses of Congress to admit a new state, or to interdict foreign commerce. 
Other amendments were designed to prevent a second term for a president, 
to prohibit the election of successive presidents from the same state, and to 
forbid naturahzed citizens to hold any office under the government. 



278 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



James Monroe's Administrations,^ i8 17-1825 

282. Era of Good Feeling. James Monroe, the fifth presi- 
dent, ushered in the "era of good feehng." The country was 
beheved to be entering on a period of peace and prosperity. 
Roads were built, canals were dug, the great fields of the West 

began to attract numer- 
.^^^^^^ ous settlers. In 18 17 

Monroe visited New 
England and many of 
the Northern states. His 
journey was a triumphal 
progress and was of the 
greatest benefit in break- 
ing down sectional lines 
and uniting the country. 
283. The Cession of 
Florida, 1819. At this 
time Spain still had pos- 
session of Florida. There 
were very few settle- 
ments, and the Indians, 
runaway slaves, and out- 
laws who roamed through 
the land caused endless 
trouble for the neighboring states. In 18 17 Andrew Jackson 
took command of the forces of the United States. Acting 
with his usual vigor, he seized a number of Spanish forts 
and towns, executed two British traders who were accused 
of furnishing arms to the Indians, and in three months 
had the country virtually under his control. His actions 

^ James Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758. He was a member of the 
Congress of the Confederation, senator, Minister to France, Great Britain, 
and Spain, twice governor of Virginia,*and Secretary of State. Nominated in 
1816 by the Democratic-Republicans for president, he was elected, and was 
reelected in 1820. He died in 1831. 




JAMES MONROE 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 279 

threatened to bring on war with Spain and England. Fortunately 
Spain was induced in 18 19 to sign a treaty with the United 
Stales. 15 V this treaty Spain (i) ceded Florida to us and 
thereby adjusted our southern boundary, (2) arranged for 
drawing the boundary line between the United States and 
Mexico from the (iulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, and 
(3) agreed to the payment by the Ignited States of the claims 
held by American citizens against Spain to the amount of five 
million dollars. Sixty thousand square miles, were added to 
our domain by the Florida Cession.^ While these stirring 
events were taking place in the Southeast, the great westward 
migration was going on, aided by better roads and bridges 
and bv the steamboats on the Ohio River. As a result the 
territory of Illinois increased its population to fifty thousand, 
and in 18 18 it was admitted as a state to the Union. 
' 284. The Question of Slavery. Slavery existed in all the 
thirteen colonies which belonged to Great Britain. At the 
adoption of the Constitution in 1787 slavery did not exist in 
Massachusetts (which included Maine), New Hampshire, and 
W^rmont. Later, however, it was gradually abolished in all the 
Northern states. By the Ordinance of 1787 slavery was pro- 
hibited in the Northwest Territory, and in consequence the 
states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, which had been formed 
from the Nortliwest Territory, were admitted as free states. 
During this time Kentuck\', Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, 
and Louisiana had been admitted as slave states. In 1820, 
therefore, there were in the Union eleven slave states and 
eleven free states, giving to each section exactly the same 
power in the national Senate.^ In the House of Representatives, 

1 At this time all the Spanish-American colonics were in revolt against the 
flag of Spain. Spain was unable to conquer these colonies, and from this time 
the Spanish colonies of Central and South America became one by one inde- 
pendent republics. 

- In 1S21 the American Colonization Society carried out its project of 
founding in Africa a colony made up largely of free negroes from the United 
States. This colony is the present Republic of Liberia. 



28o 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



however, the free states, because of their rapidly increasing 
population, were obtaining the mastery, having at this time 
ninety-eight members to eighty-one for the slave states. In 
population the North now outnumbered the South by more 
than half a million. The slave states, therefore, resolved to 
hold their power in the Senate by refusing to admit a free 
state unless a slave state was admitted at the same time. 




THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE OF 182O 



Up to this period the new states, except Louisiana, had been 
established in territory entirely east of the Mississippi. The 
large emigration, however, had now crossed that ri\'er, and the 
settlers, who were mostly from the South and favored slavery, 
asked the admission of this new section as the state of Missouri. 

285. The Missouri Compromise, 1820. This request brought 
on a crisis. Should Missouri be admitted as a free or slave 
state ? Upon the decision of that question practically depended 
the fate of slavery and freedom in the entire Louisiana Pur- 
chase. Other questions were involved in this problem, llie 
South, in raising tobacco, cotton, and rice, felt the necessity of 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



281 



slavery to secure cheap labor. It also desired to buy its goods 
where they cost least ; in other words, they desired free trade 
with Europe. The North, in consequence of the War of 18 12, 
had given up the carrying trade by sea to some extent, had 
established manufactories, and desired a tariff placed on foreign 
goods. This would largely 
prevent their importation and 
would build up home industries. 
There was thus a conflict of 
interests between the North 
and the South. In the North, 
too, gradual emancipation was 
rapidly bringing about the 
extinction of slavery, and the 
disposition to, prevent its intro- 
duction into new territory was 
growing. Most of Missouri is 
n()rth of the lower Ohio River, 
which was the boundary between 
the slave and free states. As 
the prohibition of slavery in 
Missouri would give the free 

states a majority in the Senate and would be a discrimination 
against the right to hold slaves, the South vigorously opposed 
any such restriction. At this critical point a compromise was 
proposed by Senator Thomas of Illinois and pushed through by 
the great ability of Henry Clay.^ It was suggested that Missouri 
should be admitted as a slave state and Maine ^ as a free state, 

1 Henry Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. He was very poor and was 
called " the Mill Boy of the Slashes," the " Slashes " being the low swampy 
lands near the South Anna River in Virginia. He moved to Kentucky and 
was at various times senator and representative. He was Secretary of State 
under President John ()uincy Adams. He was called "the Great Pacificator." 
He was nominated for the presidency in 1824, in 1S32, and in 1S44, but was 
defeated each time. He died in 1852. 

2 Maine had been a part of Massachusetts since 1691. With the consent 
of the latter state she now applied for admission to the Union. 




HE.NRV CLAY 



282 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

thus maintaining the equahty of power in the Senate ; also 
that slavery should be prohibited forever in all the rest of the 
Louisiana Purchase (or Missouri Territory, as this area was now 
called) north of 36° 30' except the proposed state of Missouri. 
This plan, known as the "Missouri Compromise," was finally 
accepted (1820), and the question of slavery was to a great 
extent settled for nearly twenty-five years. 

286. The Holy Alliance. Spain had lost as the result of 
revolutions her continental colonies in the New World.^ 
They had become independent republics. In 181 5, after the 
overthrow of Napoleon, the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, 
France, and Austria formed a union, called the Holy 
Alliance, to uphold "religion, peace, and justice." In 1822 
this was supplemented by a secret treaty, by which they 
agreed to act together to put an end to representative insti- 
tutions in Europe, to suppress the liberty of the press, and 
to reestablish everywhere reactionary and despotic govern- 
ments. In 1823 they intervened to restore absolute rule in 
Spain and planned to recover the revolted colonies for the 
Spanish king. It is believed that France expected to secure 
Mexico and that Russia had plans on foot to seize California, 
We had at this very period a question to settle with Russia 
on the Pacific seaboard, for she claimed that coast from 
Bering Sea to the fifty-first parallel.^ If her claims were good 
we were in danger of being shut out entirely from the Pacific 
coast, as Mexico extended to the forty-second- parallel and 
England claimed Oregon, which at that time included all the 
area from the Mexican boundary of 42° to the Russian boundary 
on the North. 

1 Mexico, Colombia, Buenos Ayres (later Argentina), Peru, Chile, and 
Venezuela were the colonies that had successfully rebelled and were acknowl- 
edged as independent republics by the United States in 1822. 

2 This parallel is about two hundred miles north of the northern boundary 
of the United States. Two years previous to this time the Czar of Russia had 
forbidden foreign navigators to come within one hundred miles of the Pacific 
coast north of 51°. 



TIIK PERIOD OF UNION 283 

287. The Monroe Doctrine. At this juncture President 
Monroe declared, in his message to Congress in ICS23, "that 
the American continents, by the free and independent con- 
dition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth 
not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any 
European powers." This was aimed at Russia, which, as we 
have seen, had designs on California. It was also directed at 
France, which, it was feared, was planning to secure control 
of Mexico. 

President Monroe further declared that as the United States 
did not propose to meddle with European affairs, he expected 
that the Holy Alliance would not meddle with American 
affairs. He therefore boldly said to the Holy Alliance : " We 
owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations exist- 
ing between the United States and those powers to declare 
that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend 
their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous 
to our peace and safety," and that any hostile interference 
with the South American republics would not be regarded 
"" in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly 
disposition toward the United States." 

This message, reenforced by the opposition of England to 
intervention in South America, produced the desired effect, 
and the republics of Mexico and of South America were 
allowed to work out their own destiny. "The era of European 
colonization in the New World had passed away." In the fol- 
lowing year Russia made a treaty with us, abandoning all her 
claims to the Pacific coast south of 54° 40', which is the 
southern limit of Alaska. The United States agreed to make 
no settlements north of that line. 

288. Reelection of Monroe. Visit of Lafayette. /\t the end 
of his first term President Monroe was reelected without 
opposition, receiving the electoral vote of every state. 

In 1824 Lafayette arrived as the guest of the nation, to 
visit again after an absence of forty years the land for which 



284 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



he had fought so vahantly. He was received everywhere with 
the cordiahty his bravery and generosity merited. At Bunker 
Hill, exactly fifty years after the battle, he laid the corner 
stone of the monument which marks that glorious height. 
Congress voted him two hundred thousand dollars and twenty- 
four thousand acres of land in Florida to repay him for the 




SCENE ON THE NATIONAL ROAD 



money he had expended in the American Revolution, He 
visited Mount Vernon to pay his affectionate respects to the 
memory of his beloved friend Washington. 

289. Emigration to the West. The National Road. The 
West was now attracting the attention of the nation, and over 
the mountains poured a stream of settlers. Steamboats began 
to ply on the large rivers. Towns were built on the banks, 
and forests cleared away for farms and plantations. This 
movement was aided by the influx of settlers from Europe. 
In the desire to render easier the communication between 
the East and the West, a highway was begun by the national 
government in 1 8 1 1 at Fort Cumberland on the Potomac 
River. This great highway was called the Cumberland, or 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



285 



National, Road. The road was about eighty feet wide, paved 
with stone and covered with gravel. It was marked every 
quarter of a mile. The road reached Wheeling in 1820 and 
was later (1836) built as far as Vandalia in Illinois, when its 
further construction ceased with the greater public interest in 
railways. Along this road passed an endless stream of pack- 
horses and of wagons with settlers seeking the fertile fields 
of the West. On reaching the Ohio River many sailed down 
in steamboats or flatboats to find new homes in the river valleys. 







THE CUMI5ERLAND, OK NATIONAL, ROAU 



The leading events of Monroe's administrations (1817-1825) were 
as follows : 

Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819. 

The slavery debate, which opened with great vigor, was settled for 
a long time by the Missouri Compromise of 1820. 

In 1823 the Monroe Doctrine was proclaimed. 

The northwestern boundary dispute with Russia was adjusted. 

The visit of Lafayette occurred in 1S24, when lie was received 
willi joy by all the nation. 

At this time began a great emigration to the West, aided by tlie 
building of the National Road, wliich reached Wheeling in 1S20. 



Dates to be remembered : 

1812. The second war with England. 
1S19. The purchase of Florida. 
1 8 20. The Missouri Compromise. 
1823. The Monroe Doctrine. 



286 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Important dates for reference : 

1814. Peace treaty with Great Britain. 

18 1 5. Battle of New Orleans. 

18 1 6. First protective tariff act. 

18 1 9. First steamship crosses the Atlantic. 

Map ivork : 

Study on the map the location of Detroit, Lake Champlain, 
Niagara River, Raisin River, Sandusky, Chesapeake Bay, Washington, 
New Orleans. 

Study carefully the result of the compromise of 1820, tracing the 
free and slave territory and the area opened to freedom. 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. "The War of 1S12 has been often and truly called the second 
war of independence." Explain the meaning of this statement and give 
three concrete results of the war. 

2. Write a brief biography of two of the following : Alexander 
Hamilton, Lafayette, Robert Fulton, Thomas Jefferson. 

3. What is the Monroe Doctrine.'' Under what circumstances was 
it proclaimed.'' 

4. Give an account of the acquisition of territoiT during Monroe's 
administration, showing (a) the circumstances and events that led to it ; 
(/') the three chief conditions of the treaty. 

5. Give an account of each of the following: («) the causes of the 
second war with England ; (b) the burning of Washington. 

6. State the objections raised by the Northern states against the 
admission of Missouri into the Union. How and in what year was the 
matter compromised.'' 

7. Show how the United States was affected by the W'ar of 181 2 as 
to {a) standing among nations ; {b) domestic relations ; (r) new industries ; 
(d) commerce ; {e) improvement of internal communications. 

8. Mention the first five presidents of the United States and connect 
an important event with the administration of each. 

9. Trace the history of Louisiana from the earliest times to its 
admission to the Union. 

10. Relate the circumstances that led to the following famous utterances: 
" Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." " We have met the 
enemy and they are ours." 



THK TKRIOI) OF UNION 287 

John Ouixcv Adams's Admixistkatiox, 1825-1829 

290. The Election of Adams. At the close of Monroe's 
administration Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and Clay were the 
candidates for the presidency. All were members of the 
Democratic-Republican party. In the election no one had 
the required majority of the electoral votes,^ and the House of 
Representatives elected John Ouincy Adams.- John C. Calhoun 
had been elected vice president with practically no opposition.^ 

291. The Tariff Question. The question of the tariff became 
one of the leading problems of Adams's administration. The 
advocates of protection believed that the tariff should be placed 
so high that foreign goods could not compete with domestic 
manufactures. This, they claimed, would keep our mills and 
factories running at full speed, would maintain a high rate of 
wages, and w^ould make the countr)- prosperous and independent 
of foreign markets. 

In opposition to this view were those who believed in "free 
trade" — that one should be allowed to buy his goods where 
he could get them cheapest. Another class believed in a '" tariff 

1 Jackson received ninety-nine votes, Adams eighty-four, Crawford forty-one, 
and Clay thirty-seven. As the House of Representatives, voting by states, 
was compelled under the Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) to choose from 
the three highest candidates. Clay could not be voted for. He used his great 
influence as Speaker of the House of Representatives, however, for Adams, 
who was elected. 

2 John Quincy Adams, the son of President John Adams, was born in 
Massachusetts in 1767. He served the country abroad as minister to Holland, 
(}ermany, Russia, and England. He was senator and served as Secretary of 
State under Monroe (1S17). He was elected president in 1S24 and was de- 
feated for reelection. After his presidential term had expired Adams was 
elected as an independent to the House of Representatives, where he was 
an earnest defender of the right of petition and a strenuous opponent of 
slavery and secret societies, earning the title of " Old Man Eloquent." 

He was stricken in his seat with apoplexy and died February 23, 1S4S. 
His last words were: "This is the last of earth. I am content." 

3 With the exception of Washington and John Adams, candidates for the 
presidency up to 1824 were nominated by a caucus of congressmen. From 1824 
to 1832 the legislatures of many of the states made nominations. The national 
convention system began in 1832 and has since been followed by all parties. 



288 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



for revenue only ' ' — that a tariff should be levied only to raise 
money to carry on the government and should not have for its 
principal object the protection of any industry. In 1816 a pro- 
tective tariff had been passed to protect from foreign competi- 
tion coarse cotton and woolen goods. This was in reality the 
first of the tariffs that were levied for protection instead of 

for revenue. Two years later 
(18 1 8) another tariff act placed 
heavy protective duties on iron 
and iron manufactures. The 
great struggle was begun be- 
tween the friends and opponents 
of protection that continues until 
the present day.^ 

In 1824 a still higher tariff 
was levied. Henry Clay was an 
earnest advocate of high pro- 
tection, which he called the 
American System. The South, 
however, was gradually chang- 
ing its earlier ideas and was 
now opposed to a protective 
tariff, while the North was 
strongly in favor of it. The South, being an agricultural section 
with no factories, believed that the high tariff diminished foreign 
trade, thus cutting down the market for cotton in Europe, and 
that it also compelled them to pay higher prices for the goods 
they bought ; the North maintained that a protective tariff 
established a home market where cotton would bring a higher 
price. Believing the tariff of 1824 did not give them sufficient 

1 In 1S16, while John C. Calhoun favored a protective tariff to encourage 
domestic industry, Daniel Webster opposed the tariff as hostile to the ship- 
ping interests of his state of Massachusetts. Webster also opposed the tariff 
act of 1S24. lie declared freedom of trade to be the general principle and 
restriction the exception. In 1S2S the positions of these statesmen were 
exactly reversed, Webster advocating protection and Calhoun opposing it. 




JOHX C. CALHOUN 



THE I'ERIOI) OF UNION 



289 



protection, a bill was introduced by the high-tariff advocates, 
raising still higher the duties on imported goods. This has 
been called the Tariff of Abominations, — "a result," says 
Professor Sumner, "of the scramble of selfish, special interests." 
This bill was passed, nevertheless, in 1828, and was signed by 
President Adams. ^ 

292. The Erie Canal. Steam Railroads. The year 1825 
witnessed the opening of tlic l-'.ric Canal by De Witt Clinton, 




EARLY TRAVKL OX THE ERIE CANAL 



governor of New York. This canal was begun July 4, 18 17, 
and its successful completion was due to the energy and deter- 
mination of Clinton, who despite ridicule and discouragements 
kept to the work. The canal, three hundred and sixty-three 
miles in length, extended from Albany to Buffalo. It was a 
stupendous undertaking. It traversed forests, crossed rivers, 
and by means of locks overcame the differences of level of six 

1 John C. Calhoun now laid down in a document called " Kxposition and 
Protest" the doctrine that this tariff was unconstitutional and that a state 
could nullify it. It asked for a convention of the state of South Carolina to 
settle the question, and it was suggested that a confederation of the states of 
the South might well be considered. This movement, if carried on, was 
ominous for the perpetuation of the Union. 



290 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 




STACECOACH 



hundred feet; it revolutionized the carrying trade,i reducing 
the price of transportation of a ton of goods between Albany 
and Buffalo from one hundred and twenty to fourteen dollars. 
The canal cost seven and a quarter 
million dollars, but the tolls paid the 
entire expense in nine years. 

The canal allowed the West to 
get at a much lower price the 
goods they so sorely needed, such 
as plows, axes, clothing, and medi- 
cine. New York merchants could 
now sell goods to the distant West 
as cheaply as they had sold them to Buffalo. 

The vast fertile tracts that were of little value because of their 
distance from markets became at once attractive to settlers, and 
they flocked in from all sides. The building of the canal built 
up the cities of Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse, and made New 
York City, which had been second in population and third in 
commerce, the first city in the country and its leading seaport. 
293. The Pennsylvania Canal System. To prevent New York 
from securing all the traffic to the West, Pennsylvania built a 
system of canals and roads 
from Philadelphia westward. 
From Philadelphia to Colum- 
bia there was a horse rail- 
road, from Columbia to 
Hollidaysburg a canal. The 
section over the Allegheny 
Mountains from Hollidays- 
burg was made up of a 

portage railway. By this peculiar railway a boat placed on wheeled 
cars was hauled up by a series of inclined planes and levels 
across the mountains to Johnstown on the opposite side of the 

1 At the opening of the canal a boat carried a load of thirty tons. The 
new Barge Canal, which was opened in 1918, accommodates large lake barges. 




EARLY TRAMWAY 



THK PERIOD OF UNION 



291 



range.^ Hence the boat could travel by canal to Pittsburgh. 
Using the Ohio and Mississippi rivers it could go on to 
St. Louis and New Orleans. 

In the states of Ohio and Indiana, canals were built to con- 
nect the Great Lakes with the Ohio River. The Chesapeake 




OPENING THE FHtST KAU.WAV 



and Ohio Canal was planned to connect the Potomac with the 
Ohio, but it was never finished beyond Cumberland. 

294. The Steam Railroad. At this time a rival for the 
canals appeared in the steam railway.'-^ With great enterprise 
Baltimore took up the railway idea, and Charles Carroll of 
Carrollton^ turned (July 4, 1828) the first spadeful of earth 

1 The state built the railway and the canal, and each individual furnished 
his own horses to draw the cars, paying the state merely for the use of the 
railway and canal. Later steam and horses were both used at the same time, 
but the horses, being slower, had to give way, and finally only steam was used. 

- The first steam engine was designed by George .Stephenson of England. 

^ Charles Carroll remarked on this occasion : " I consider this among the 
most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration 
of Independence, if second to that." The Baltimore and ()hio was extended 
to Cumberland in 1S35 and reached the Ohio River at Wheeling in 1S53. 




292 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the first passenger railway 
in the United States. 

The first steam locomotive built in America was designed by 
Peter Cooper in 1830, sixteen years after Stephenson had invented 
the steam engine in England. The steam locomotive produced 
a wonderful change, as the train was now longer and could go 
much faster than with horses. Every year saw new developments. 
Railroads were soon built from Albany to Schenectady in 
the Mohawk valley and from Charleston to Hamburg in South 

Carolina. Many states 
gave aid in building rail- 
roads. The Western Rail- 
road (which later became 
the Boston and Albany), 
the Boston and Provi- 
dence, and the New York 
MODERN RAILROAD ^ud Lake Erie were all 

opened at this time. 
At the end of 1830 the extent of railways in operation was 
twenty-three miles ; in 1840 it had risen to two thousand eight 
hundred and eighteen miles. In 1853 the first railroad from 
the East reached Chicago. At the present time we have about 
two hundred and sixty thousand miles of operated railway. 

In 1828 Andrew Jackson was elected by the Democratic- 
Republicans, or the Democrats as that party was hereafter 
named, easily defeating President John Ouincy , Adams, who 
was a candidate for reelection. 



The leading events of John Quincy Adams's administration were : 

The tariff discussion of 1827 and 1828. 

The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 and the general movement 
for canals in many of the states of the Union. 

The building, in 1828, of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad — the 
first regular passenger railway in America. 



THE PERIOD Ol" UNION 



293 



Andrew Jackson's Administration, 1829-1837 

295. Jackson's Strong Personality. The election of Andrew 
Jackson ^ showed a marked change in the pohtical thought of 
the country and foreshadowed the leading part which the young 
and growing West was destined to play in national affairs. 

Unlike his predecessors, Jack- 
son had had no early advan- 
tages. From Washington to 
John Ouincy Adams the presi- 
dents had been well educated, 
while many of them had ample 
fortunes. Jackson's early educa- 
tion had been brief ; his success 
had been obtained only by the 
most strenuous efforts. Ills 
triumph at New Orleans, his 
victories in the Seminole War, 
and his rugged, sterling, honest 
character had endeared him to 
the people. They felt he had 
come from among themselves. 
He was especially beloved 

throughout the South and the new West, and in his case a 
Western man was for the first time elected president. 

296. Removals from Office. Jackson began his administra- 
tion by removing many officeholders. To turn out his foes 

• Andrew Jackson was born of Irish descent, March 15, 1767, on the 
border of North and South Carolina. I lis early life was spent in the direst 
poverty. At the age of thirteen he was in the army fighting Great Britain. 
He studied law and later moved to Tennessee. In 1796 he was elected to 
Congress. lie soon resigned and was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court 
of his adopted state. In the War of 1812 he became famous throughout the 
land by his victory at New Orleans and later (1818) by his campaign in 
Florida against the Indians. " Old Hickory." as he was called, reached the 
presidency in 1S2S, and was reelected in 1S32. lie died June 8, 1845, at 
his home "The Hermitage," near Nashville. 




ANDREW JACKSON 



294 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

and reward his friends seemed to him a laudable action, and 
he removed about two thousand persons during the first year 
of his presidency. 

Rewarding the friends of a party by turning out its oppo- 
nents is called the spoils system^ from a speech in the United 
States Senate by Senator Marcy of New York, in 1832, in 
which he declared that he could " see nothing wrong in the 
rule, that to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy," 
The spoils system was the policy of our government until 
the Pendleton Civil Service Law of 1883 made a slight 
beginning in establishing the merit system. 

297. Nullification. The Webster and Hayne Debate, 1830. 
The tariff acts of 1824 and 1828 aroused the South and 
brought to the front, through John C. Calhoun ^ and other 
South Carolinians, the idea of nullification, or the right of a 
state to declare null and void any act of the Federal Congress 
which was believed to be unconstitutional. In 1830 Senator 
Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina ably proclaimed this 
doctrine in the United States Senate. He maintained that the 
Constitution was a compact, formed by sovereign states which 
could not only withdraw if they wished but could set aside a 
law of Congress. This was the so-called "compact" theory of 
our government. He was answered by Daniel Webster, who, 
in a masterly oration, upheld the Constitution and the Union, 
winning for himself the title of " Defender of the Constitu- 
tion." Webster declared that the government was national and 
that states could not secede. He maintained that the Supreme 

1 Jackson did not originate the " spoils system," as it had been in use from the 
beginning of the RepubUc, but he greatly developed it. "The spoils system," 
says Channing, in "United States," Vol. IV, p. 50, "instead of being an invention 
of Jacksonian Democrats or Jeffersonian Republicans was an inheritance 
from the Federalist presidents and by them had been built up on colonial and 
English precedents." 

2 John C. Calhoun was born in South Carolina in 17S2. He studied law 
and served many terms in Congress. He was also vice president and Secretary 
of State. From his advocacy of state rights and nullification he was called " the 
Great Nullifier." He was the stanchest upholder of slavery. He died in 1850. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



295 



Court of the United States alone had power to set aside as 
unconstitutional a law of Congress. This doctrine was called 
the " national " theory. The Civil War, as we shall see, finally 
settled the question in favor of the national theory. 

In 1832 a state convention was called in South Carolina. 
This convention declared the tariff acts of Congress to be 
null and void unless Congress gave relief. It also prohibited 
the payment of the duties 
and threatened to secede 
if force were used to 
collect them. Calhoun 
resigned the vice pres- 
idency and was elected 
to the Senate in 1833 to 
oppose Webster's doc- 
trines. 

President Jackson acted 
promptly and decidedly. 
"' The laws of the United 
States must be executed," 
he said in a proclamation 
to South Carolina ; and at 

once General Scott was sent to Charleston, and Lieutenant 
b'arragut with a naval force to Charleston Harbor, while the 
collector was ordered to collect the duties. 

Henry Clay, desirous of maintaining peace, suggested a 
compromise in 1S33. He proposed a gradual lowering of the 
tariff of 1832 Wor ten years, until the duty should be as low 
as it had been in the tariff- of 18 16, — twenty per cent of 
the value of all imported goods. This compromise became 
a law in 1833, and South Carolina, having secured a lower 
tariff, as it had desired, at once repealed its Ordinance of 
Nullification. 

1 This act modified the tariffs of 1S28 and 1S30 and brought the duties 
back to the rates of 1S24. 




DANIEL WliliSTKK 



296 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

298. The Abolition Movement. In 1829 Benjamin Lundy 
began a movement for the entire emancipation of the slaves 
in all the states. In 183 1 the Liberator, a weekly paper pub- 
lished by William Lloyd Garrison, appeared in Boston. The 
Liberator advocated the immediate abolition of slavery in all 
parts of the Union. Antislavery societies began to be organized ^ 
and increased rapidly. 

The spread of the antislavery movement caused the great- 
est alarm not only in the South but also in the North, where 
the mercantile and manufacturing interests were opposed to 
political or social agitation that would exasperate the South 
or diminish its prosperous development. 

299. Social Reforms. The abolition movement began at a 
time when there were arising loud demands for a reform in the 
method of administration of hospitals, jails, and asylums for the 
blind and insane. At this time imprisonment for debt was gen- 
erally abolished and the modern cell system was introduced into 
prisons. The so-called Washingtonian societies led the move- 
ment for temperance in the use of liquor. This movement grew 
rapidly and was later greatly aided by the visit to America of the 
famous temperance advocate Father Theobald Matthew, who had 
accomplished wonderful results from his crusade in Ireland. 

This general reform spirit no doubt aided the abolitionists 
in their crusade against slavery. 

300. Nat Turner Rebellion, 1831. In 1831 an insurrection 
under a slave named Nat Turner broke out among the slaves 
of Virginia, during which sixty whites were murdered. The re- 
sponsibility for this massacre was unjustly placed by the South 

1 These societies were aided by the fact that Great Britain, in 1833, had 
passed an emancipation act to free the negro slaves in her colonies in the 
West Indies at a cost of one hundred million dollars. After seven years Eng- 
lish territory throughout the world would be free from slavery. The new 
Latin republics of Central and South America emancipated their slaves as 
soon as their independence was established. Slavery still existed at this time 
in Brazil under the Portuguese and in the colonies of Spain in the New World. 
France abolished slavery in her West Indian islands in 1848. Cuba began 
emancipation in 1870, and Brazil abolished the slave system in 1888. 











THE SITE OF CHICAGO IN 1S32 
297 



298 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

on the abolitionists. As the agitation continued and increased, 
popular indignation was more and more stirred, and in 1835 
Garrison was dragged through the streets of Boston with a 
rope around his waist, and his life was barely saved. ^ 

301. The Right of Petition. Petitions now began to pour 
into Congress asking for the abolition of slavery and the slave 
trade in the District of Columbia.^ The Southern leaders asked 
Congress to refuse to receive such petitions, and after prolonged 
discussion the House of Representatives so voted in 1836. 
John Quincy Adams, after leaving the presidency, had been 
elected to the House of Representatives. He protested strongly, 
but in vain, that the right of petition was secured to any citizen 
by the first amendment to the Constitution. This action by the 
House of Representatives was called a " gag resolution " and 
was intended, it was claimed, solely to shut off all debate on 
the slavery question. 

At this time the abolitionists began to send their publications 
in large numbers through the mails to the Southern states. 
The South asked the Federal government to refuse to for- 
ward such literature, as it was incendiary and tended to inflame 
the slaves to rebellion and violence. The postmaster-general 
ruled that he had no authority by law to exclude such matter 
from the mails, and on the other hand he would not instruct 
postmasters to forward or to deliver abolition documents. 

1 It was this sight which led Wendell Phillips into the ranks of the aboli- 
tionists. Whittier, Bryant, Emerson, and Longfellow aided the movement by 
poems against slavery. Many prominent men in the North opposed slavery, 
but felt Garrison went too far and therefore refused to join the movement. 

Anti-abolitionist mobs destroyed the printing presses of the abolitionists in 
Philadelphia, Utica, Cincinnati, and Alton, Illinois. In the latter city Elijah 
Lovejoy was killed in the attack on his office. Many abolitionists dissenting 
from Garrison's policy of abstaining from political action decided to form a 
party called the Liberty party, and in 1840 they nominated for the presidency 
James G. Birney, who was born in Alabama but was a strong abolitionist. 

2 One of the petitions from Pennsylvania declared that the District of 
Columbia was " one of the greatest marts for the traffic in the persons of human 
beings in the known world notwithstanding the principles of the Constitution 
declare that all men have an unalienable right to the blessing of liberty." 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 299 

The opponents of slavery thereupon claimed that two sacred 
rights under the Constitution were attacked, — the right of 
petition and the freedom 6f the press. Antislavery ideas 
spread more rapidly than ever ; new abolition societies were 
formed throughout the Northern states, and the North and 
South drew ever nearer to the final struggle between freedom 
and slavery. 

302. The National Bank Question. The first bank of the 
United States had been organized by Hamilton in 1791 and 
had been granted a charter for twenty years. In 181 1, when 
the charter expired, Congress refused to renew it. State banks 
at once sprang up on all sides. In the crisis of the War of 
18 1 2 many of these state banks failed, and a charter for a 
second bank of the United States was granted at the sugges- 
tion of President Madison. This charter was to run for twenty 
years. The bank was located at Philadelphia and witli its 
twenty-five branches in many cities transacted the financial 
business of the government. 

303. Jackson and the Second Bank of the United States. 
President Jackson was at first friendly to the bank, but he came 
later to believe with many of the people, especially in the West, 
that the bank was an un-American monopoly, unsafe, badly 
managed, and unconstitutional. He also believed it had taken 
an active part in politics in opposition to him. He was deter- 
mined, therefore, to overthrow it. Although the bank's charter 
would not expire until 1836. the friends of the bank introduced 
and passed a bill in 1832 through both houses of Congress to 
renew the charter for another twenty years from 1836. Presi- 
dent Jackson promptly vetoed it. The bank charter therefore 
became an active issue in the presidential election of 1832. 
In this campaign the friends of the bank, under Clay, opposed 
Jackson. Jackson defeated Clay and the bank was doomed. 

304. Pet Banks. End of the Second Bank of the United 
States. In the following year the Secretary of the Treasury 
was ordered to remove the government deposits from the bank 



300 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

and to distribute these deposits among the state banks, or 
"pet banks" as they were called because it was said the 
administration favored them. A' bitter contest arose over this 
action, but President Jackson was successful and the second 
bank of the United States ceased to be a government 
bank.i 

305. Jackson's Specie Circular, 1836. The opening' up of 
the fertile lands of the West had caused great activity through- 
out that section. Hundreds of thousands of acres of land were 
purchased for farms and hundreds of towns were laid out. 
A wild speculation arose in lands, timber, and cotton. Much 
of the payment for the public lands, purchased from the 
Federal government, was made in paper bank notes of the 
state banks instead of in gold and silver. President Jackson 
feared that so much of this state bank money had been 
printed that it would soon be of little value. He therefore 
issued his famous Specie Circular order (July 11, 1836) in 
which he directed that only gold and silver would thereafter 
be accepted in payment of public lands. This created a panic 
among the speculators and in the crash that followed thou- 
sands were ruined. This was the beginning of the crisis of 
1837, which came to a head in the next administration. 

306. Jackson's Indian Policy. It was President Jackson's 
policy to secure the removal of all the Indians to the west of 
the Mississippi River by the purchase of their lands through 
treaties. In 1834 Congress passed a law creating the Indian 
Country, or Territory, which under the law included all the 
territory of the United States west of the Mississippi not 
included within Missouri, Louisiana, and Arkansas. The 
Cherokee, who owned valuable lands in Georgia, strongly 
resisted removal for a time but at last sold their property and 
joined the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole tribes in 
the Indian country of the West. In the Northwest most of 

1 The bank received a new charter from the state of Pennsylvania, but it 
failed in 1841. 



THE PERIOD OE UNION 301 

the tribes had been pushed across the Mississippi. The Sauk 
and Fox tribes had given up in 1804 valuable land in western 
Illinois and Wisconsin. In 1832, in an attempt to regain this 
land, under their chief Black Hawk, they went on the warpath 
and spread destruction and death far and wide among the 
frontier settlements. They were finally overwhelmed on the 
banks of the Mississippi. 

307. Indian War in the Southeast. War broke out also in 
Morida, where some of the Seminole leaders had returned 
from the Far West and, joining with the Creek, began under 
Chief Osceola to burn and ravage the settlements. It was 
not until 1842 that they finally yielded and agreed to go 
again to the West. After the Indians had been finally removed, 
Wisconsin, Illinois, Alabama, and Mississippi filled the vacated 
Indian lands with settlers. They became the basis of great 
states, and the entire territory east of the Mississippi was freed 
of Indian wars. In 1836 Arkansas was admitted to the Union, 
and in 1837 Michigan became a state. 

308. American Literature. W^hile there had been remark- 
able political and industrial developments in the country, there 
was also growing up an American literature.^ In 1828 Noah 

1 About this time English travelers in America presented rather unflattering 
views of this country on their return home. This led to a general belittling 
and abuse of America in the English reviews, accusing Americans of an entire 
lack of culture and an abundance of conceit and self-laudation. Sydney Smith, 
in the Eiiinburgh Kit'/ew, wrote in 1820: "In the four quarters of the globe, 
who reads an American book ? or goes to an American play ? or looks at an 
American picture or statue? What does the world yet owe to American phy- 
sicians or surgeons ? What new substances have their chemists discovered } 
or what old ones have they analyzed ? What new constellations have been 
discovered by the telescopes of Americans ? What have they done in mathe- 
matics ? Who drinks out of American glasses ? or eats from American plates ? 
or wears .American coats or gowns ? or sleeps in American blankets ? Finally, 
under which of the old tyrannical governments of Europe is ever\' sixth man 
a slave, whom his fellow creatures may buy and sell and torture ? " The answer 
was soon given by Irving in literature, by Story in art, by Morton and Wells 
in medicine, by Francis C. Lowell in industry, by Peter Cooper and Cyrus 
McCormick in mechanics, and by the long line of American inventors, 
thinkers, and industrial captains. 



302 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Webster's Dictionary of the English Language appeared. The 
Webster Dictionary aided in giving us an American standard 
of spelhng and to a certain extent a pronunciation of our own. 
It also included many of the newer words which were being 
coined so rapidly in the new life of the West. Washington 
Irving was writing his delightful tales of the Hudson valley 
he knew so well, and James Fenimore Cooper was holding the 



-jpa^ 








LONGFELLOW S HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE 



youth of the land spellbound with his Indian and scout stories, 
Bryant, Whittier, Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, and Holmes 
were writing spirited poems ; Hawthorne gave the country the 
charming prose of which he was so able a master ; Lowell 
and Brownson were writing their thoughtful essays ; and 
Simms presented pen pictures of Revolutionary times in his 
interesting novels. The historians — Bancroft, Motley, Pres- 
cott, and Parkman — were already at work on the histories 
which made them so famous, American literature was at last 
beginning to win for itself a well-deserved place in the world's 
classics. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 303 

SUMMARY 

The. leading events of Jackson's two administrations (1829-1837) 
were : 

The removals from office and the further development of the 
spoils system. 

The growth of the abolition movement and the bitter debates in 
Congress on the slavery question. 

The Webster-Hayne debate on the Constitution in 1830. 

The Nat Turner rebellion in Virginia in 183 1. 

The rise of the nullification question with South Carolina in 1832 
and President Jackson's firm defense of the Union. 

The overthrow, in 1832, of the second bank of the United States. 

The establishment of Indian Territory in 1834 and the removal of 
the Indians to the W^est. 

The beginning of the Black Hawk and Seminole wars of 1832. 

The discussion in Congress of the right of petition. 

The Jack.son Specie Circular of 1836, which paved the way for the 
crisis of 1837. 

Dates to he remembered : 

1832. The nullification question with South Carolina. 

Important dates for reference : 

1833. The foundation of Chicago. 
1836. The independence of Texas. • 

IMakti.n Van Biki:x's Admixistkatiox,^ 1837-1841 

309. The Era of Speculation. In the administration drawing 
to a close Van Buren had been vice president. He was Jackson's 
intimate friend and adviser, and it was through Jackson's in- 
fluence that he was elected. A New Yorker by birth, he was 
the first Democrat from the North to be elected president. 

1 Martin Van Buren was born of Dutch ancestry in Kinderhook. New York, 
in 1782. lie was an able lawyer and guided for many years the politics of the 
state of New York so skillfully that he was called "the Little Magician." lie 
served as senator, governor of New York, Secretary of State, and vice presi- 
dent. He was elected president in 1S36, defeating Harrison, but was defeated 
in 1S40 by Harrison. He died in 1862. 



304 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The last years of Jackson's administration had witnessed 
an astonishing growth in the nation : the development of the 
great West and the wonderful industrial progress and prosperity 
of the country had aroused to a fever pitch the spirit of specu- 
lation, especially in government lands ; towns were laid out 
on all sides, sometimes even in the wilderness ; great enter- 
prises were undertaken without regard to cost or reason, and 
the entire nation seemed to be rushing on in a mad race for 
wealth. The causes of this mania for speculation were two- 
fold : the United States in 1835 had become free from debt,^ 
and at the same time money above expenses to the amount of 
thirty-five million dollars was flowing into the national treas- 
ury through the customhouses and land offices from the large 
sale of public lands.^ As the opponents of the administration 
believed that the deposit of the public money in the state, or 
" pet," banks might well be a source of more or less political 
corruption, they proposed a plan of distribution of the surplus 
to all the states. 

310. Deposit of National Funds in State Banks. A com- 
promise was, however, proposed by Calhoun by which the 
surplus, to the amount of twenty-eight million dollars, was 
" deposited," as it was called, with the several states. This 
really meant a gift of the money. The money was at this 
time in the " pet," or state, banks, and it was recalled from them. 
This request staggered the state banks, which in turn called 
in their loans. The money which was now deposited with 

1 The national debt of seventy-five million dollars was created in 1790 
under Hamilton's plan for funding the foreign, national, and state debts. It 
rose to one hundred and twenty-seven million dollars in 181 6 as a result of the 
War of 181 2. It decreased until 1835, when it ceased to exist. After the Crisis 
of 1837 ten million dollars was voted by Congress to meet the needs of the 
government. This created the national debt anew which, largely increased, 
has remained to the present time. 

2 The administration did not feel that it could reduce the revenue from 
customs, as the tariff was being gradually reduced under the compromise of 
1833, 3"d no one wished to disturb that settlement and bring on sectional 
trouble again. 



THE PERIOD OE UNION 305 

the states was used b\' them for education, for internal im- 
provements, and in some cases as outright gifts to the voters. 
During these years the states had been borrowing immense 
sums of money from abroad and had been carrying on exten- 
sive enterprises such as canals, roads, and railroads. Relying 
on the increase of wealth to come from these improvements, 
they had recklessly contracted enormous debts. 

311, The State Banks and Wildcat Money.' A second 
cause of this wild speculation was the ease with which money 
or loans with which to buy public lands were obtained from 
the state banks. We have seen that the second bank of the 
United States had failed to secure a renewal of its charter. 
This led to an increase in the number of banks established 
under charters from the states. Many of these new banks had 
little capital. It was in banks of this kind that the money 
formerly deposited in the l^ank of the United States or its 
branches had been placed by President Jackson, as the national 
government had no vaults in which to keep it. Many of these 
state banks had at once issued large amounts of bank notes or 
promises to pay gold or silver when they reall}' had neither 
gold nor silver. As the bank notes were used to pay for gov- 
ernment land, President Jackson became alarmed and, as we 
have seen, demanded specie, or in other words gold or silver, 
in all purchases of public land. This stopped the speculation, 
and men tried to sell the lands for what they could get. 

312. Crisis of 1837. As a result a widespread crisis ensued 
at the very outset of \'an Uuren's administration. Ikuiks sus- 
pended everywhere ; mills and factories were closed ; and tens 
of thousands of workingmen were thrown out of employment. 
Man}' states and territories which had borrowed money from 
foreign countries were unable to pay their obligations. Seven 

' A bank in Michigan issued notes witli a picture on them of a wildcat, or 
panther. When this' bank failed, its notes were called wildcat notes, and 
hence banks that were either insolvent or likely to become so were called 
wildcat banks, and their notes wildcat money. 



3o6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

of them failed to pay the interest to their foreign creditors, 
and one refused to pay either principal or interest. For many 
years afterward Europeans looked with disfavor on American 
securities. 

313, The Independent Subtreasury Plan. To bring about a 
better state of financial affairs Van Buren favored a plan to 
establish a subtreasury for the money of the United States. 
Instead of depositing its money in state banks, the government 




now proposed to keep its own deposits in its own vaults. To 
this end there was finally (1846) established the Independent 
Treasury of the United States, in the Treasury Building in 
Washington, with branches in various cities. 

314. The Anti-rent Agitation in New York. Under the 
patroon system, as we have seen (sect. 70), vast estates came 
into the hands of a few families. The tenants on these estates 
were given perpetual leases by the patroons. Many of the 
tenants, however, believed that the War of the Revolution 
had destroyed the title of the patroons to this property, and 
they failed for years to pay their rent. Wljen it was finally 
demanded they rose in arms (1840) and drove out the rent 
collectors. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



307 



For ten years discontent and disorder prevailed throughout 
these districts. Finally, after the courts had recognized the 
titles of the patroons as valid, a compromise was effected (1850) 
iiy which the proprietors sold the lands to the tenants at a 
reasonable price. 

315. The Mormons. At this time a new religious sect arose 
in western New York. Joseph Smith, the leader, announced 
in 1S23 that he had received from an angel a book composed 
of golden plates. He 

declared that this book 
told the story of the 
early inhabitants of 
America and the truth 
of a new gospel. He 
called it the Book of 
Mormon, from the name 
of the alleged writer of 
the book. Smith and 
his followers moved 
from New York west- 
ward, where they came 
in conflict with various 
state authorities. 

While not a part of their original belief, polygamy soon 
became an article of their faith. Their peculiar doctrines soon 
aroused their neighbors, at that time plain backwoodsmen. 
The Mormons at last determined to get a new home in the Far 
West. Under the leadership of Brigham Young they reached 
the beautiful valley of the Great Salt Lake, Near its banks 
they founded (1848) Salt Lake Citv. 

316. Development of the Express Business. William V. 
I larnden, who had been a conductor on the Boston and 
Worcester Railroad, announced (1839) that he had arranged to 
carry money, valuables, and packages between Boston and New 
York. For some months a valise or two sufficed to carry the 




r 



m; 



POXV EXPRESS 



3o8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

goods intrusted to him, but in a year the business had grown to 
goodly proportions. Alvin Adams and P. B. Burke estabhshed 
(1840) a rival express under the name Burke & Co., which 
became later (1854) the great Adams Express Company. Twenty 
years later the pony express was established to reach the Pacific 
coast. Stations were located ten miles apart between St. Joseph, 
Missouri, and Sacramento, California. Mounted on a fast pony, 
the messenger started across the plains to the first station, 
where a fresh horse was taken and the journey continued. At 
every third station a fresh rider took the mail. In eight days 
these riders traversed two thousand miles of prairies, deserts, 
and lonely mountain passes. It cost five dollars to send a letter 
by this express. The building of the telegraph lines to San 
Francisco put an end to the pony express, and the Wells- 
Fargo Express Company developed the express business of 
the Pacific coast. 

This period witnessed interesting and vital movements. Many 
of the new states on admission to the Union established state 
universities from funds provided from the sale of public lands. 
The University of Michigan was founded in 1837. The ques- 
tion of "women's rights" first came to the front with a 
demand for the education of women in the public schools 
and colleges. In 1833 Oberlin College admitted women on 
the same terms as men. It was not until 1856, however, that 
a state university (Iowa) opened its doors to women. 



The leading events of Van Buren's administration (1837-1S41) 
were : 

The great crisis of 1837. 

The establishment of the subtreasury in 1840. 

The anti-rent agitation in New York, which ended in 1850. 

The rise of the Mormons and the settlement, in 1848, of Salt 
Lake City. 

The beginning, in 1840, of the express business. 



THE I'KRIOl) nv UNION 309 

Harrison's Administration, 1841. Tvlkr's 
Administration, i 841- 1845 

317. The Election of Harrison and Tyler, 1841-1845. As 
\'an Buren's term drew to a close the Whigs ^ determined to 
take advantage of the 

distress of the times and ^ ' ^ 

prevent, if possible, his 
reelection. They nomi 
nated as their candidate 



SB 



for president William ^ ~^~^#^ ^ 

Henr)- Harrison,^ the ^ 4^ ^ ^ Si^'t^ 

hero of Tippecanoe, and „^ ' '"' *^ "^ / j^ /]^ ^^ 

for vice president John " 

Tyler. The contest was 

a most spirited one. A 

Democratic paper had 

contemptuously referred 

to Harrison as being 

better fitted to live in a 

log cabin, drinking hard 

cider and skinning coons, 

than in the White House. 

The Whigs at once took 



M 







HARRISON'S ELECTION 



1 After Jackson's administration his supporters, who had been called Demo- 
cratic-Repubhcans, dropped the latter word and became known as Democrats. 
Their opponents took the name of Whigs. The Whigs in England were op- 
posed to the king. In this country the enemies of Jackson claimed he was as 
tyrannical in his methods as any king could be, and hence they opposed him 
under the name of Whigs. They had nothing in common with one another 
except antagonism to Jackson, his policies and friends. The Whigs were in 
reality merely an anti-Jackson party. 

- William Henry Harrison was born February 9, 1773. in Virginia. His father 
was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and governor of 
\'irginia. Harrison served in the army and was appointed (iSoi) governor of 
Indiana Territory. He was later elected to the House of Representatives and 
to the Senate of the United States. He was defeated for president by Van 
Buren in iS36and was elected over Van Buren in 1840. He died .April 4, 1841. 



3IO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

up the cry and called him the log-cabin candidate. Log cabins 
were erected as the headquarters of the Whigs. With cheer- 
ings for '" Tippecanoe and Tyler too," processions filled the 
streets, bearing models of log cabins with coon skins hanging 
at the door ; immense meetings were held out of doors, at 
which thousands of people gathered. The enthusiasm of the 
people carried Harrison to victory.^ 

318. Death of Harrison. Tyler and the Whigs disagree. In 
the midst of the Whig rejoicings Harrison suddenly died, a 
month after his inauguration, and Tyler ^ became president. 
It was the first time in our history that a president had died 
in office. 

Tyler was a states'-rights Democrat. He had been nominated 
by the Whigs to secure some of the electoral votes of the South. 
His views were in practically all respects entirely different 
from those of the Whig party that had elected him. The 
Whigs desired to pass a new high tariff act and to spend 
large sums of money for internal improvements. They wished 
above all to reestablish the Bank of the United States, and 
a bill was drawn to this end. 

It passed Congress, but President Tyler vetoed it on the 
ground that it was unconstitutional. Another bill, framed, it 
was claimed, to meet the president's objections, was passed, 
but President Tyler vetoed that bill also, as he found grave 
objections to it. 

1 The Democratic and the Whig parties refused to take up the slavery 
question. Therefore in this year the Liberty party, made up of antislavery 
men, nominated James G. Birney for president. He polled only seven thou- 
sand votes, but the increase in the number who in general believed in the ideas 
of this party gave them gradually the balance of power between the Democrats 
and the Whigs, which they used to advantage in the next twenty years. 

■-John Tyler was born in Virginia in 1790. His father was governor of 
that state for some years. Tyler was a lawyer, served in both Houses of Con- 
gress, and was governor of Virginia. He was elected vice president in 1840 
and succeeded to the presidency in 1841. In 1861 he tried to bring about 
peace between the North and the South, and when these measures failed he 
followed his native state out of the Union. He died in 1862, while attending 
the sessions of the Confederate Congress in Richmond. 



TIIK I'KRIOI) OK IINION 311 

President Tyler was thereupon deserted by the Whig party, 
and his entire cabinet resigned with the exception of Daniel 
Webster, who remained to conclude his labors on the new 
treaty with England. 

319. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842. The treaty of 
peace signed at the close of the Revolution had left in ques- 
tion a large territory — twelve thousand square miles — on our 
northeast boundary. England and the United States both 
claimed it, and war was imminent, as Maine had sent troops 
into the disputed territory. England now sent a commissioner. 
Lord Ashburton, to arrange a new treaty with Daniel Webster, 
Secretary of State. The boundaries were satisfactorily adjusted 
in 1842, Maine securing about seven thousand miles and Eng- 
land the remaining five thousand. The northern boundary of 
the Louisiana Purchase in the Northwest was also determined 
by accepting the line agreed upon in 18 18, from the Lake of 
the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 

320. The Dorr Rebellion, 1842. The people of Rhode 
Island had been living under a constitution, granted as far 
back as the time of Charles II (1663), which allowed only 
landowners and their eldest sons or persons renting property 
to vote. Unless a man owned real estate he could not act as 
a juror nor bring a suit in any court of law until a property 
holder indorsed it. The representation in the legislature was 
absolutely unjust, as a struggling village had as great a repre- 
sentation as a flourishing city. 

Having tried in vain to secure a change in the constitution, 
the people rebelled, formed a convention, and elected (1842) 
Thomas W^ Dorr governor. As most of those who voted for 
Dorr were not legally voters, the existing state government 
refused to recognize him. 

Both sides took up arms, but little bloodshed ensued. 
Dorr was finally arrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to 
imprisonment for life, but he was soon pardoned. As a result 
of his work a new constitution was later adopted. 



312 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

321. The Electric Telegraph. In 1837 S. F. B. Morse 
secured a patent for sending messages by electricity. Few 
believed in its worth, and the inventor struggled on in poverty 

for years. In 1843 he asked 

^if _^ Congress to appropriate thirty 

(" ' "• thousand dollars for a tele- 

'■^gfe ' "f:S\ graph line between Washing- 

. ' ' ton and Baltimore, a distance 

^\ '~'~ of forty miles.i There was 

bitter opposition to the bill, 

one member remarking that a 

railroad to the moon would be 

as reasonable. At midnight on 

the last day of the session the 

bill was carried, and the work 

was soon begun. Professor 

Morse sent the first message 

SAMUEL F. B. MORSE (^^7 24, 1 844) /rom the 

Chamber of the United States 
Supreme Court. This message read : "What hath God wrought." 
It was sent to his assistant in Baltimore, who at once repeated 
it to Morse, while the onlookers were dumb with astonish- 
ment. The first news received over the telegraph was the 
nomination of Polk by the Democratic convention in Baltimore. 




w r o II g h t. 

THE FIRST TELEGRAPHIC MESSAGE 

322. The Packet and Clipper Ships. After the War of 1 8 1 2 

American merchants and shipbuilders started lines of small 
quick-sailing packet boats to Liverpool. This packet service, 

1 The first electromagnetic telegraph in the world was set up on the 
campus of Princeton College. It connected Nassau Hall with the residence 
of Professor Joseph Henry, the scientist. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



313 



wrote Charles Dickens in 1842, was " the finest in the world." 
One of these packets, the Dreadnought, covered the distance 
from Sandy Hook to Oueenstown in nine days and seventeen 
hours, — up to this day the world's record for a sailing vessel. 
In the meantime the clipper-ship era came in. They carried 
an enormous spread of sail and raced along before the wind. 




A CLIPPER SI UP 



The tea trade of China and the discovery of gold in California 
created a great demand for quick-sailing vessels to San Francisco. 
This opened the way for the wide use of the quick-sailing Amer- 
ican clipper ship. The clipper-ship era began to pass away when 
iron vessels, driven by steam, appeared on all the oceans, and 
the American merchant marine virtually disappeared when the 
Alabama and other Southern cruisers swept the United States 
flag from the seas. After the Civil War the attention of Amer- 
ican business men turned to railroad building and manufacturing, 
and the American merchant marine passed to foreign flags. 



314 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



323. Texas secedes from Mexico. The burning question 
during Tyler's term was the annexation of Texas. In 1821 
Mexico granted a tract of land in Texas to Moses Austin on 
condition that he would found a settlement. Many colonists 
poured in, especially from the Southern states. The Mexican 
government foresaw trouble over slavery and tried to stop 
American colonists from coming in, but without success. 

In 1835 Mexico was changed by President Santa Anna 
from a federal to a centralized republic, by which the states 
lost their state rights and became mere 
departments, as is the system in France. 
Difficulties arose with Texas out of this 
change^ and the Texans rebelled. 

Under General Sam Houston they 
attacked the Mexicans at San Antonio 
(December 10, 1835) and defeated them. 
Three months later Santa Anna led a 
strong force against the Alamo, a fortified 
church and monastery at San Antonio. 
Here one hundred and seventy men were 
besieged. After eleven days the Mexicans 
captured the Alamo ^ and put to death all within it. This act 
so enraged the Texans that the war cry became " Remember 
the Alamo! " The decisive battle was fought at San Jacinto ^ 
April 21, 1836, when the Mexicans were utterly routed. 

324. The Republic of Texas. Texas thereupon became a 
republic, with a new constitution ^ which legalized slavery. Her 
independence was recognized by the United States, England, 
Belgium, and France. At once she applied for admission to 
the Union as a slave state. She was unsuccessful. In 1844 




LONE STAR 
FLAG 



1 The Texans did not look for independence at first. They merely desired 
to become a separate state within the Mexican Republic. 

^ Alamo (al'a mo). 

3 San Jacinto (sahn ha theen'toh). 

* It was called from its flag the " Lone Star Republic." The Texans 
declared their independence March 2, 1836. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 315 

President Tyler negotiated a treaty with Texas providing for 
annexation, but it was rejected by the Senate. ^ The South 
desired the annexation of Texas, that siie might increase the 
slave territory ; the North opposed it, believing from this vast 
tract sufiicient slave states would be formed to give the slave 
power control of the republic. 

325. The Annexation of Texas. The Texas question was 
a leading issue in the next presidential campaign. Polk was 
nominated by the Democrats, Clay by the Whigs, and Birney 
by the Liberty party. Birney polled just enough of the votes 
which would normally ha\-e gone to Clay to defeat the latter, 
and Polk was elected. 

The result of the election President Tyler interpreted as a 
verdict of the people in favor of the annexation of Texas. He 
proposed to Congress that Texas be treated like a territory 
applying for, admission to the Union and be admitted by a joint 
resolution. This was done, and Texas, having accepted this 
method, became a state December 29, 1845, with the pro- 
vision that with her consent four other states might be formed 
from her territory. The Texans, however, refused to divide up 
their state, and it gave the South, therefore, only two votes in 
the Senate. Te.xas was the last slave state admitted to the 
I'nion. 



The leading events of Harrison and Tyler's administrations were: 

The death of President Harrison in 1841. 

The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. 

The Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island in 1842. 

The invention, in 1S37, of Morse's electric telegraph. 

The annexation of Texas in 1845. 

1 I lenry Clay had declared, " Annexation and war with Mexico are identical." 
Mexico had officially warned us that the annexation of Texas would be con- 
sidered a cause of war. The United .States government replied that it regarded 
Texas as an independent nation and could therefore deal with it without 
consulting any other nation. 



3i6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Write a brief account of the following : (a) the first railroad ; (/>) the 
first steamboat ; (r) the first telegraph ; (d) the first canal. 

2. Give an account of the financial crisis of 1837 and state two results 
of this crisis. 

3. What changes of sentiment in regard to taxing imports took place 
in the North and in the South between 1814 and 1S35? What tariff 
troubles occurred in Jackson's administration? 

4. What was the doctrine of nullification ? What was President 
Jackson's attitude toward it? 

5. What is meant by the phrase, " To the victor belong the spoils "? 
Did Jackson originate the doctrine? 

6. What were the two chief political topics of Jackson's administration ? 

7. What was the effect of the Black Hawk War of 1832? 

8. What was the occasion of the Webster-Hayne debate of 1 830 ? 
What was the main point at issue in this debate ? What position did each 
statesman take on the main issue ? 

9. What important invention was first used in Tyler's administration? 
10. What steps led to the admission of Texas to the Union ? 

READINGS 

Histories. Babcock, K. C, T/ie Rise of American Nationality. 
Bassett, J. S., Life of Andrew Jackson. Brigham, A. P., Froin Trail 
to Railway throitg?i the Appalachians. Channing and Laxsixg, The 
Story of the Great Lakes. Curtis, G. T., Life of Daniel U'c/'sfcr. 
Drake, S. A., Making of the Ohio Valley States. Egglestox and 
Seeley, Tecnmseh and the Shawnee P7-ophet. Howells, W. D., Stories 
of Ohio. Hulbert, A. B., Historic Highways of America. Hl'xt, G., 
fohn C. Calhoun. LossiNG, B. J., Pictorial Field Book of the liar of 
1S12. Madisox, Memoirs a9td Letters of Dolly Madison. Mahax, A. T., 
Sea Power iti its Relations to the War of 1S12. MacDoxald, Wm., 
Jacksonian De7nocracy. Mo\\'RV, W. A., American Lirc'cntions and 
Lnvcntors. ScHURZ, Carl, Hc/ny Clay. Sparks, E. E., Expansion 
of the Ajnerican People. Turxer, F. J., Rise of the A'ew West. 

Sources. Hart, Contemporaries^ Vol. HI, p. 410 (A New England 
Secessionist) ; p. 422 (Battle of New Orleans) ; p. 467 (An Indian's Opinion 
of the White Man); p. 475 (Chicago in 1833); p. 479 (The Holy Alliance) ; 
p. 512 (Who Reads an American Book.?); p. 520 (Domestic Manners of 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 317 

the Americans); p. 561 (The First American Steam Railroad); p. 571 
(First Telegraph Line). iMuzzEV, Kcaifi/igs, p. 222 (British and French 
Aggressions); p. 239 (The Florida Dispute, 181 6- 181 9); p. 244 (The 
Monroe Doctrine); p. 258 (Plea for the Occupation of Oregon;; p. 278 
(Early Anecdotes of the Railroad). 

Fiction. ALTSiiELiilt, J. A., Herald of the U'es/ {a. story of the War 
of 1 81 2). Barton, W. E., Prain'e Scliooiier (treats of the Black Hawk 
War). Cooi'EU, J. F., The Prairie. Garland, H., Boy Life on the Prairie. 
Male, E. E., East and West. Henderson, W. J., Straui^e Stories of 
1S12. HoL.MES, O.W., Old Ironsides. \k\\\g,'W ., Adventures of Captain 
Bonneville. Kev, F. S., The Star-Spangled Banner. Munrof., Kirk, 
Midshipman .Stuart. Pvlk, H., Within the Capes. Rociii:, J. J., 'J'he 
Constitution's Last J-'ij^ht. Se.vwell, M. E., Decatur a/id Soniers; 
Little faf^'is; Midshipman Paulding. Tomlinson, E. T., Search for 
Andrcio Field. Tourgee, A. W., Figs and Thistles (a story of life in 
pioneer Ohio). 



Polk's Ad.mixisika riox,^ 1S45-1849 

326. The Settlement of Oregon. By a treaty made in 1 8 1 8 the 
United States and Great Britain agreed to occupy Oregon as a 
joint possession, free and open to the subjects of both countries 
for a term of ten years, to be renewed if both parties so wished.^ 

As we have seen, Captain Gray of Boston discovered and 
named the Columbia River in. 1792. Lewis and Clark later 
explored this territory, and John Jacob Astor established here 
his fur-trading colony, which was named Astoria. 

The Hudson l^ay Company had posts throughout the terri- 
tory, especially north of the Columbia River. Their principal 

^ James K. Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795. Eleven years later 
his family moved to Tennessee. Polk studied law and was elected to Congress 
in 1S24. lie was chosen governor of Tennessee in 1839. Because he favored 
the annexation of Texas he was nominated for president by the Democrats. 
In the election he defeated Henry Clav, who had been nominated by the \N"higs. 
Polk died in 1S49, three months after his term as president had expired. 

- I!y the treaty of 1S19 with Spain the forty-second parallel was the northern 
limit of Spanish territory. Oregon therefore covered the area between 42° 
and 54' 40' north latitude. 



3i8 ESSExNTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

station was Fort Vancouver, nearly opposite the mouth of the 
Willamette. Here resided Dr. John McLoughlin/ the "chief 
factor" or agent for the company in the Pacific Northwest. The 
Canadian settlers and Indians had asked for priests to minister to 
them, and in 1838 Fathers Blanchet and Demers left Montreal 
for the Oregon country, where they established many missions. 




it 



^^■^^Ai^^^^im^hJ^-uti 



THE NAVAL ACADEMY 

Two years later Father De Smet, the famous Jesuit missionary, 
started from the Missouri River with a large party of emigrants. 
He founded (1841) his first mission among the Flathead Indians 
on the Bitter Root River, and later established many others.'^ 

1 Dr. McLoughlin was born in Quebec of Irish parentage and was thirty- 
nine years of age when he arrived in Oregon. " White men and red alike 
revered him," says H. H. Bancroft. 

2 Father De Smet went to Europe in 1S43 to secure missionaries and 
teachers. He returned with several priests, and Sisters of Notre Dame of 
Namur, who opened a school for girls. So rapid was the spiritual growth in 
Oregon that Father Blanchet was appointed Bishop December i, 1843. Father 
De Smet " was well fitted to make a favorable impression upon the savages and 
to succeed in a field which others had either shunned or a"bandoned." — 
H. H. Bancroft, "Oregon," I, 323 

Father De Smet's " Oregon Missions and Travels over the Rocky Moun- 
tains " may be read in Vols. XXVIII-XXIX of " Early Western Travels." 



THK PERIOD OF UNION 



319 



327. Founding of the Naval Academy, 1845. Through the 
efforts of George Bancroft, the historian, who was at this time 
Secretary of the Navy, the Naval Academy was founded in 
icS45 to train ofificers for the navy of the country. This 
famous school is located at Annapolis, Maryland. 

328. The Adjustment of the Oregon Question, 1846. The 
resources of the Oregon country in the years following 1842 
attracted thousands of settlers, who in long caravans toiled 
through the passes of the 
Rockies.^ Throughout the 
West the people began to 
demand the absolute posses- 
sion of Oregon ; that is, all 
the territory from California 
as far as the southern boundary 
of Russian America (Alaska), 
which was 54° 40' north 
latitude. "-^ 

England, on the other hand, 
claimed that Drake had dis- 
covered this coast and that 

settlements had been made by English colonists. She declined 
to yield up this vast tract of rich country and thereby cut 
herself off from the Pacific coast. 

She finally proposed, as a compromise, a division of the 
territory at the forty-ninth parallel. This was our northern 
boundary from the (jreat Lakes to the Rocky Mountains, and 
it was now extended to the Pacific. An agreement was reached 
on this basis, and Oregon was made a territory with the 
prohibition of slavery (1848). 

1 Professor E. G. Bourne in his " Essays on Historical Criticism " shows that 
the story of Marcus Whitman and his visit to Washington to save Oregon has 
no historic basis. Whitman came East to prevent the closing of his missions, and 
he had nothing to do with saving Oregon, the value of which was well known. 

2 Hence arose the famous cry, " The whole of Oregon or none ! Fifty-four 
forty or fight ! " 




THE OREGON COUNTRY 



320 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

329. The War with Mexico, 1846-1848. Battles of Palo 
Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Buena Vista. Texas, on her 
admission to the Union, claimed the Rio Grande ^ as her 
southern and western boundary, while Mexico maintained that 
the Nueces 2 River formed the boundary,^ President Polk, 
however, agreed with the Texans"* and ordered General 
Zachary Taylor to seize the disputed territory. Taylor did so, 
advancing to the north bank of the Rio Grande, where he 
built Fort Brown, Directly opposite was the Mexican city of 
Matamoros. The conflict was not long postponed. The Mexi- 
cans crossed the river and attacked a band of United States 
soldiers. Taylor at once attacked the Mexicans and in the 
battles of Palo Alto^ (May 8, 1846) and Resaca de la Palma^ 
(May 9, 1846) defeated them. He thereupon crossed the Rio 
Grande and took Matamoros. A few days later war was declared 
(May 13, 1846) against Mexico, and fifty thousand volunteers 
were called for. 

330. The Plan of Campaign. The plan of campaign was 
threefold : General Taylor was to control the Rio Grande and 
move southward ; General Stephen W. Kearny, who was at 

1 Rio Grande (ree'o grahn'day) means "great river." President Polk sent 
Slidell of Louisiana to Mexico to negotiate for the purchase of New Mexico 
and CaHfornia, but the Mexican government refused to receive him. In 1S47 
another attempt at peace was made when President Polk sent another envoy, 
but this mission also failed. 

2 Nueces (noo ay'thayce). 

3 The southern boundary of Texas when it was part of one of the states of 
the Republic of Mexico was the Nueces River. As part of the Louisiana Pur- 
chase, however, the Rio Grande was assumed to be the southern boundary. 

* General Grant, who served in the Mexican War, said in his Memoirs, 
p. 37 : "I was bitterly opposed to the measure [the annexation of Texas] and 
to this day regard the war which resulted as one of the most unjust ever 
waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It is an instance of a republic's 
following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice 
in their desire to acquire additional territory. . . . The Southern rebellion was 
largely the outgrowth of the Mexican War. Nations, like individuals, are pun- 
ished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary 
and expensive war of modern times." 

5 Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to) means " tall tree." 

" Resaca de la Palma (ray sah'cah day lah pahl'ma), " ravine of the palm." 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



321 



Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, was to conquer New Mexico and 
California ; General Winfield Scott, the commander in chief, 
was to advance from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. In the 
autumn of 1846 Taylor captured the town of Matamoros and 




THE MEXICAN WAR 



then moved against the city of Monterey,^ which he won after 
a three days' battle (September 23, 1846). 

He was now ordered to send all but five thousand of his troops 
to General Scott. In this weakened condition he was attacked 
at Bucna Vista '^ by the Mexican general, Santa Anna, who had a 
vastly superior force. Taylor won a decided victory (February 23, 
1847). 

' Motitcn-v (mon tay ray'ee) means " king's mountain." 

- Ihicua I'istii (bway'nah vces'tah) means "beautiful view." 



322 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

331. New Mexico and California. In the summer of 1846 
General Kearny had marched from Fort Leavenworth to con- 
quer New Mexico and Cahfornia. He easily made his. way to 
Santa Fe,^ which surrendered (August 18, 1846) without opposi- 
tion, and New Mexico passed under our rule. 

In the meantime the American settlers at Sonoma in the 
Sacramento valley declared California to be an independent 
republic. They raised the Bear flag of the new republic. 

Commodore Sloat took Monterey on the Pacific coast for the 
United States (July 7, 1846), and raised the Stars and Stripes 









Jobo'O" __^ Cerro Gordo - 



Chaico \ 



^^^ Vera CruzV 

~--_Et, OF^^^ San Juan de mloa"^ 




ROUTE OF GEXERAL SCOTT 

of the Union. Sloat ordered Captain Montgomery, of the United 
States sloop of war PcnisjiiontJi, to seize San Francisco, which 
was at once done. The Sonoma republic now lowered its Bear 
flag and raised instead the flag of the Union. Commodore 
Stockton captured Los Angeles,^ and soon the United States 
colors were floating over all the territory. 

332. Scott's March to the City of Mexico, 1847. After his 
defeat at Buena Vista, Santa Anna hastened to attack Scott, 
who had landed at Vera Cruz.^ This port was defended by a 

1 Santa Fe (sahn'tah fay) means " holy faith." It had been founded 
probably in 1582 and is the second oldest town in the United States. 

"^ Los Angeles (Spanish pronunciation, loce an'hell ace ; American pro- 
nunciation, 16s an'jel es) means " the angels." Its full Spanish name was 
Nuestra Senora la Reina de los Angeles, " Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels." 

^ Vera Ctiiz (vay'rah croos) means " true cross." Its full name was Villa Rica 
de la Vera Cruz, " The Rich City of the True Cross." It was founded by the 
intrepid explorer Cortes, whose route to the city of Mexico was followed by Scott. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



323 



fort called San Juan de UUoa/ at that time a position of great 
strength. For four days Scott rained shot and shell upon it, 
until it surrendered (March 29, 1847). Scott now started for 
the city of Mexico, about two hundred and sixty miles away. 
The road led through mountain passes. At Cerro Gordo,^ one 



.'^. 




%Mri-#-^-lTr: 








SCOTT ENTERING MEXICO 



of the higher spurs, the Mexicans, fifteen thousand strong, 
awaited Scott, but he defeated them (April 18, 1847). 

The city of Puebla ^ next fell into his hands. He waited 
here almost three months and then started for the capital. 
He soon met the Mexicans and defeated them (August 20) 
at Contreras."* They thereupon fell back the same day to Chu- 
rubusco,'' where they fortified themselves in and around the old 
monastery. Here another battle was fought, ending in the 

1 San Juan de Ulloa (sahn whahn day ool yo'ah). 

- Cc/yv Gordo (ther'ro gor'do) means " large hill." 

8 Puebla (pway'lDlah). 

* Contreras (con tray'ras). ^ Churubusco (choo roo boos'co). 



324 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

defeat of the Mexicans. Our troops pushed steadily onward, 
fighting the battle of Molino del Rey ^ (September 8). At last 
they reached the strongly fortified height of Cliapultepec,^ 
which overlooked the city of Mexico. Chapultepec fell (Sep- 
tember 1 3), and the next day our army entered the city 
of Mexico. 

The fall of the capital ended the war. We had won every battle. 

333. The Peace Treaty, 1848. A treaty of peace was signed 
F'ebruary 2, 1848, at Guadalupe-Hidalgo,'^ by which Mexico 
ceded New Mexico and California to the United States. As we 
already possessed Texas, with the Rio Grande as its southern 
boundary, an area about nine hundred thousand square miles in 
extent was added to our domain, — a territory nearly five times 
the size of France and twenty times as large as Pennsylvania. 

In return we paid Mexico fifteen million dollars and assumed 
the claims of our citizens against Mexico, amounting to three 
and a quarter million dollars. We also assumed the debt of 
Texas, amounting to seven and one-half millions. An impor- 
tant result of the war was the education of many officers who 
were later to' figure prominently in the Civil War.^ 

334. The Wilmot Proviso, 1846. During the Mexican War, 
David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, proposed (1846) 
a measure called after him the Wilmot Proviso.^ It sought to 
exclude slavery from all the territory to be acquired from 
Mexico. As Mexico had already (1829) abolished slavery 

1 Molino del Key (mo lee'no del ray'ee) means " king's mill." This was a 
grain mill, strongly garrisoned and surrounded by a wall. 

2 Chapultepec (chah pool tay pek') means " the hill of the grasshopper." 

3 Guadalupe-Hidalgo (gwah dah loo'pay-ee dahrgo) is a suburb of the 
city of Mexico and contains the famous shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. 

* Grant, Lee, Thomas, Sherman, McClellan, Beauregard, Shields, and 
Jackson were some of the officers trained in this war. 

5 A bill had been introduced into Congress appropriating two million 
dollars for the purchase of the disputed territory from Mexico. To this bill 
Wilmot moved to add his Proviso, "that neither slavery nor involuntary 
servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory except as a punishment 
for crime." 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



325 



throughout the rcpubHc, except in Texas, Wilmot desired to 
prevent the reintroduction of the slave system into the area 
that Mexico might cede to us. The Proviso led to earnest 
and bitter debates on the slavery question, the North warmly 
favoring the measure, the South as strongly opposing it. It 
passed the House of Representatives, but failed in the Senate. 





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MCCORMICK AM) 
THE REAPER 



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335. Great Inventions. The Reaper and Sewing Machine. 

During this and the following administrations a number of 
great inventions ushered in a new industrial era. Obed 
Hussey of Maryland patented (1833) a reaper. Six months 
later Cyrus H. McCormick of Virginia secured a patent on 
his reaper. For some years McCormick tried in vain to sell 
his machines. At last the farmers of the great West recog- 
nized the value of the new invention, and the reapers came 



326 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



into general use. They have rendered possible the profitable 
cultivation of the Western wheat fields and greatly reduced the 
price of bread. 

Elias Howe, who lived in the direst poverty, watched his 
wife one day while she toiled with her needle and conceived 
the idea of building a machine to do the arduous work of sew- 
ing. He toiled for many years and took out his first patent 
in 1846. Howe's ideas were developed by others until sewing 
machines were in practically every 
household. They were introduced 
(1862) into shoe factories, under 
McKay's patent, and brought about a 
great reduction in the price of shoes. 
336. Goodyear 's Discovery. The Use 
of Ether. The year 1849 witnessed 
the great discovery of Goodyear 1 in 
the perfecting of the treatment of 
India rubber.^ For years various at- 
tempts had been made to manufac- 
ture goods from rubber, but they 
were unsuccessful, as the heat melted 
the goods in summer and the cold 
cracked them in winter. Goodyear, after working for years, at 
last accidentally discovered vulcanization, a process by which 
sulphur is mixed with the rubber gum and then subjected to 
great heat. In this way rubber can be made rrot only hard or 
soft but durable, and the secret was thus discovered by which 
rubber goods became so important a part of man's life. 

The greatest boon in the history of the world for the relief 
of suffering humanity came in the years 1844 to 1846. 
Dr. Wells of Hartford, in 1844, had nitrous oxide gas (laugh- 
ing gas) administered to himself for the extraction of one of 




ELIAS HOWE 



1 It has been said that the rubber shoe has done more to preserve the 
heahh of the human family than any other single article of apparel. 
' India rubber is the juice or sap from a certain tropical tree. 




A CALII'UKMA MISSION 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 327 

his teeth and discovered that it produced insensibiUty to pain. 
Dr. Morton, a dentist in Boston, and Dr. Jackson, a chemist, 
discovered in 1846 the value of ether for producing absolute 
insensibility with safety. This wonderful discovery rendered 
possible the most delicate and vital operations while the 
patient remained in j^rofound unconsciousness.^ 

337. The Great Immigration from Europe. In 1848 and 
1849 revolutionary ideas began to spread through Europe, 
The king of France w'as driven from his throne ; in Germany 
there were uprisings in almost all the states. In Austria- 
Hungary the Hungarians rebelled and drove out the Austrians. 
As a result of these revolutions, especially in Germany, many 
Germans came to America and founded new homes here. 
A great famine occurred in Ireland (1847-1848) through the 
failure of the potato crop and thousands of Irish men and 
women came to America. This large stream of immigrants 
added to the population, took up unoccupied lands, and fur- 
nished the labor so necessary to carry on the work of building 
railroads, canals, and cities. 

338. The Early Explorations of California. An event now 
occurred that was destined to exert a great influence on our 
history, — the discovery of gold in California, Before con- 
sidering this event a brief sketch of the early history of Cali- 
fornia is necessary. The fearless explorer Cortes explored 
(1535) the gulf and peninsula of Lower California. Seven 
yeaiS later Cabrillo^ explored the Pacific coast of California, 
entering the harbor of San Diego -^ (1542). In 1602 Sebastian 
Vizcaino,'* with three vessels, sailed from Acapulco, explored 
the Bay of San Diego, and discovered the Bay of Monterey, In 
1697 the Jesuits began the work of spreading the Gospel and 

1 Among the other inventions about this period were the Iloe printing 
presses, Colt's revolver, Ericsson's screw propeller, the steam fire engine, 
the eccentric lathe, the friction match, the daguerreotype, and the planing 
machine. 

- Cabrillo (cah breel'yo). 3 s,/>i Dii-go (dee ay'go) means " St. James." 

* Vizcaino (veeth cah ee'no). 



328 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

civilization among the native Indians.^ Mission after mission was 
founded in Lower California, until the society was expelled 
from the Spanish dominions in 1767. For many years Cali- 
fornia had been neglected by Spain. Two causes at last served 
to awake the mother country : first, the fear that the coast 
would be seized and occupied by another power ; second, the 
need of harbors whither the richly laden ships coming from the 
Philippines could seek safety from storms or pirates. 

339. Foundation of the Missions. Spurred on by orders 
from Spain, the viceroy of Mexico now determined to push 
the occupation and civilization of California. The Franciscans 
were invited to extend their aid in converting, civilizing, and 
educating the Indians.^ The superior of the order. Father 
Junipero Serra, personally led in the good work. San Diego 
was the first of the California missions established (1769), and 
" the pilgrims there sang the first Christian hymn heard on 
[Upper] California's shores." Immediately following the foun- 
dation of San Diego an expedition under Don Caspar de 
Portola went northward and discovered (1769) the Bay of San 
Francisco. Monterey was founded in 1770, and in rapid suc- 
cession San Francisco (1776), Santa Clara (1777), San Jose^ 
{1797), Los Angeles (1781), Santa Barbara (1786), and many 

1 This work was planned and carried out under Father Salvatierra, assisted by 
other Jesuits. " Father Salvatierra taught," says Blackmar, in " Spanish Insti- 
tutions of the Southwest," p. 80, " the natives to till the soil, to construct houses, 
to learn trades ; and he practised them in the observances of the Church. Their 
children were instructed in the rudiments of learning. He lo"'oked out for their 
physical comfort, endeavoring to make them happy and contented as he taught 
them the arts of a new civilization." The money necessary for carrying on 
these missionary plans was contributed by charitable persons. This was the 
celebrated '" Pious Fund," which later became a cause of dispute between Mexico 
and the United States. The dispute was the first case settled at The Hague. 

- The Franciscans had come to Mexico in 1524 and established the mission 
of San Fernando, that became the mother of all the Franciscan missions in 
Mexico and California. The Jesuits came in 1572, having already established 
missions in Havana and among the Seminole Indians of Florida. The Carmel- 
ites arrived in 1585, and the Benedictines in 1589. To the Dominicans were 
given later the missions of Lower California. 

' San Jose (sahn ho say') means " St. Joseph." 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



329 



Others, until an unbroken line of missions, twenty-one in num- 
ber, joined San Diego to San Francisco, spreading on all sides 
the truths of the Gospel and the blessings of civilization. 

340. Decline of the Missions. In 18 13 the first step in re- 
mo\in<^ the missions from the care of the Religious Orders 




niE EARLY MISSIONS OF CALIFORNIA 



was taken by the Spanish government, but the decree was not 
carried out. In 1833 the Mexican government decided to en- 
force the earlier decree, making the missions state property. 
It was the beginning of the end of the system. ^ Gradually the 

1 Speaking of the work of the Franciscans, Dwindle, in " Colonial History 
of San Francisco," p. 84, says: "It was something, surely, that over thirty 
thousand wild, barbarous and naked Indians had been brought in from their 

savage haunts, persuaded to wear clothes, accustomed to a regular life 

taught to read and write, .... accustomed to the service of the Church, par- 
taking of its sacraments, and indoctrinated in the Christian religion." 



330 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

missions decayed ; the natives were scattered, until in 1845 the 
property that had not been stolen or squandered by the officials 
was actually offered to the highest bidder. Before this step 
could be carried out, however, the flag of the United States 
was raised, and General Kearny decreed, in 1847, that the mis- 
sions and their property should remain in the hands of the 
Religious Orders until the legal title could be decided. 

341. Discovery of Gold, 1848. About this time the whole 
aspect of affairs in California was changed by the world-famous 
gold discovery. Some years before, a Swiss settler named Sutter 
had established an estate and fort on the Sacramento River in 
California. While one of his workmen, named Marshall, was 
building a sawmill on a fork of the American River about forty 
miles from the fort, he noticed (January 24, 1848) shining par- 
ticles in the mill race. These proved to be gold. The news 
traveled quickly, and a wild rush began for the mountains. 

342. The Emigration to California. From every side, north 
and south, east and west, the miners poured in. Some came 
overland across the prairies and deserts, where thousands 
perished from thirst, the cholera, and attacks of the Indians ; 
others rounded Cape Horn in sailing vessels, while many came 
by way of the Isthmus of Panama. 

San Francisco at the time of the gold discovery was a collec- 
tion of mud huts, with seven hundred inhabitants. It soon be- 
came a city of twenty thousand inhabitants. No less than ninety 
thousand immigrants arrived within two years -of Marshall's 
discovery. These were the famous "' Forty-niners." 

So great now became the number of settlers and so desperate 
were many of the gold seekers that it became necessary to 
frame some system of laws to protect life and property. At 
first vigilance committees were appointed, and later a conven- 
tion was called to frame a state constitution. A clause pro- 
hibiting slavery was passed unanimously. This constitution 
was adopted by the people (1849), ^^^ application was thereupon 
made for the admission of California as a state of the Union. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



331 



343. Election of Taylor. The question of the extension of 
slavery was daily becoming more ^troublesome. In 1848 the 
Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena 
Vista ; the Democrats nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan. 
The platform of neither party made any references to slavery. 







W' 


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-M':. 





THE SCENE UF THE GOLD DISCUVERV 

A third party was the Free-Soilers. This party would not 
interfere with slavery in the slave states, but it was ijnalterably 
opposed to any extension of slavery into new territory or be- 
yond the Mississippi. The Free-Soilers nominated Martin Van 
Buren. He polled enough Democratic votes in New York to 
cause Cass to lose the state and the election, and Taylor became 
president. 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of Polk's administration (1845- 1849) were : 

The adjustment of the Oregon question. 

The Mexican War, 1846- 1848. 

The Wilmot Proviso of 1846. 

The discovery of ether and development of great inventions. 

The discovery of gold in California in 1S48. 



332 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Taylor's Administration, 1849-18 50. Fillmore's 
Administration, i 8 50-1 8 5 3 

344. The Compromise of 1850. Scarcely had Taylor ^ been 
inaugurated when there arose the question of the admission of 
California, As this state extended both north and south of the 
parallel of 36° 30', it was proposed that the question be settled 
by extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific. At 
this time the balance was evenly maintained between the free 
and the slave states, each having fifteen.^ 

The admission of California as a free state would upset that 
balance and give the free states control of the Senate. They 
already controlled the House of Representatives. The South, 
therefore, opposed the admission of all of California as a free 
state and urged delay or, at least, the extension of the Missouri 
Compromise line. 

There were many other difficult problems to be solved. In 
the territory ceded by Mexico, besides California, some form of 
government had to be established, and the question of slaveiy 
there had to be settled in some way. Again, Texas claimed 
that part of New Mexico which lies east of the Rio Grande, a 
claim the New Mexicans contested. The North, too, objected 
to slavery in the District of Columbia, while the South de- 
manded a better law to regain slaves that had run away to 
the North. 

345. The Omnibus Bill. At length Henry Qay once more 
appeared as peacemaker and proposed a scheme to settle the 

1 Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784, and soon removed with his 
father, who was a Revolutionary officer, to a plantation in Kentucky. lie 
entered the army, rose to distinction in Indian battles, and in the Mexican 
War gained fame for his successes. He was loved by his soldiers, who called 
him "Old Rough and Ready." He took little interest in politics and never 
voted. He owned a large plantation in Louisiana, where he had many slaves, 
but he did not desire to see the system extended to territory where the people 
opposed it. He died July 9, 1S50. 

2 Florida, admitted in 1S45, was offset by Iowa (1S46), and Texas (1845) 
by Wisconsin (184S). 



'rm<: period of uniOxX 333 

difficulties. His bill, known as the Compromise of 1850, or 
the Omnibus Bill, was made up of the following provisions : 

1. The admission of California as a free state. 

2. Territorial governments for New Mexico and I'tah 
without reference to slavery. ' 

3. The pa\-mcnt to Texas of ten million dollars for her 
claims to part of Xew Mexico. 

4. The prohibition of the slave trade, but not of slaverv, in 
the District of Columbia. 

5. A stringent fugitive-slave law. 

This compromise led to an earnest debate, in which Calhoun, 
Clay, Webster, Chase, and Seward took leading parts ; the 
three former favored while the two latter denounced the Com- 
promise measures.^ While the Compromise Acts were pend- 
ing, President Taylor died (July 9, 1850). He had been in 
office only sixteen months. Vice President Fillmore at once 
took his place. Fillmore was favorable to the Compromise and 
aided in its passage. In the form of separate bills the Com- 
promise became a law during August and September, 1850. 

California, under the Compromise, was admitted to the 
Union, September 9, 1850, giving the free states now a 
majority of one in the Senate.'^ 

1 This bill provided that the people in each territory should determine for 
themselves whether their territory would be free or slave. This was called 
" popular " or " squatter " sovereignty, the word squatter meaning " settler." 
Lewis Cass of Michigan was the author of this idea. 

2 In this debate .Senator .Seward said : " There is a higher law than the 
Constitution," meaning the moral law, which rejected, he maintained, the very 
idea of slavery. This " higher law " doctrine became very popular in the North 
after this time. 

' The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between the United States and (".reat Britain 
went into effect in 1S50. It provided that neither country should exercise 
exclusive control over any Central American ship canal (see sect. 506). 

In the administration of President Garfield. Secretary of State James G. 
Blaine tried without success to have this treaty abrogated. A convention 
signed November 18, 1901, by the United States and Great Britain provided 
for "a complete abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty and assured to the 
United States the sole right to construct and maintain " the canal across 
the Isthmus of Panama. 



334 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

346. The Fugitive Slave Law. The passage of the Fugitive 
Slave Law as part of the Compromise aroused the deepest 
excitement in the North. ^ According to the provisions of this 
law United States officers, on the oath of an owner or his 
agent, could seize a colored person anywhere and turn him or 
her over to the claimant. Even years of residence in a free 
state gave the negro no rights whatever. As soon as the law 
was enacted, thousands of negroes, therefore, fled across the 
border into Canada. The slave could give no testimony and 
could not demand trial by jury, while heavy penalties could be 
inflicted on anyone assisting a slave to escape. The attempts 
of the officers to arrest runaway slaves provoked the bitterest 
feelings in many Northern cities. In some places the captured 
slaves were rescued and sent into Canada. Friends of the 
slaves secretly helped them from city to city till they reached 
the northern border. This method of rescuing the slaves was 
called the " Underground Railroad." One of the worst features 
of this bill was, it was claimed, the arrest of free negroes and 
their transfer to slavery again in the South. 

347. Personal Liberty Laws. Cheap Postage. The passage 
of the Fugitive Slave Law led, in practically all the Northern 
states, to the enactment of laws, called Personal Liberty 
Laws, to protect the fugitive slaves. These laws in many 
cases really amounted to nullification, as their object was 
to defeat a national law. 

In 185 1 Congress took a long step toward cheaper postage. 
At this time it cost five cents to send a half-ounce letter to 
any point less than three hundred miles and ten cents beyond 
that distance. Congress now reduced the price for each half- 
ounce letter to three cents for three thousand miles and six 
cents for a greater distance. Adhesive stamps had been 
introduced only four years earlier. 

1 The Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 was of little value, as it required the aid 
of the state authorities to carry it out. This new law recognized slavery as a 
national institution and protected the property in slaves. 




335 



336 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

348. " Uncle Tom's Cabin." While the return of fugitive 
slaves under the Compromise of 1850 had deeply stirred the 
antislavery spirit of the North, this intense feeling was greatly 
increased by the publication in 1852 of Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle 
Tom's Cabin," a story dealing with life in the South. The sales 
of this book reached millions of copies. It was translated into 
twenty languages. More than any other single force its publi- 
cation stirred up the antislavery feeling and increased the ranks 
of those opposed to the extension of slavery. The South 
maintained that the book depicted unusual and extreme cases 
and was not a true picture of Southern life. 

349. The Gadsden Purchase, 1853. As difficulties arose in 
adjusting our southwestern boundary, a new treaty was made 
(December, 1853) with Mexico by which the United States 
purchased the land. This purchase added about forty-five 
thousand square miles to our domain in the territories of Ari- 
zona and New Mexico, between the Gila ^ River and our pres- 
ent boundary. The price paid was ten million dollars. It is 
called the Gadsden Purchase, after James Gadsden, United 
States minister to Mexico, who arranged the matter. 

In the election of 1852 both parties in their platforms 
endorsed the Compromise of 1850, hoping to end the slavery 
discussion. Franklin Pierce, the Democratic candidate, received 
the electoral votes of every state except four. The Whig can- 
didate was General Winfield Scott. 



SUMMARY 

The leading events of Taylor's and Fillmore's administrations 
(1849-1853) were: 

The Compromise of 1S50 and slavery discussion. 
The Fugitive Slave Law troubles. 
The publication of " Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
The Gadsden Purchase of 1853. 

1 Gila (hee'lah). 



TlIK I'KRIOI) Ol- I NION 337 

Pikrck's Admixistkation/ 1H53-1857 

350. Another Era of Good Feeling. The sweeping victory of 
Pierce and the absence of all partisan feeling led the country 
to believe that his administration would usher in another era 
of good feeling. The great business development led men to 
forget for a time the slavery question. Both North and South 
were apparently in harmony in the belief that the Compromise 
of 1850 had settled the slavery dispute forever. Besides the 
remarkable development of manufacturing, an era of railroad 
building was now coming in. 

351. Pushing to the West. Six railroad lines were pushed 
across the Appalachians to the central West, and in a short 
time to the Mississippi River. The grain of the West now 
began to be moved to the East in large quantities and the 
manufactured goods of the East to go to the West. The pro- 
duction of cotton in the South reached over two million bales 
at this time, and the railways aided the river traffic in moving 
this enormous and valuable product to the eastern seaboard. 

352. Reappearance of the Slavery Question. The general 
calm of the country was not allowed to continue. Within a 
short time of Pierce's inauguration the slavery question was once 
more to the front. It will be recalled that under the Missouri 
Compromise of 1820 slavery was forbidden in the Louisiana 
Purchase north of 36° 30'. Under this Compromise and the 
Compromise of 1850, therefore, the free and slave condition of 
all the territory under the Federal government was now fixed. 

353. The Kansas-Nebraska Act. There was, however, no 
regularly established government for the rich Louisiana Pur- 
chase, which the people of the frontier states wished to enter 
and settle. It was now determined to organize, under the 

^ Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804. He became a suc- 
cessful lawyer and was elected to the national House of Representatives and 
to the Senate. As president he opposed all antislavery measures, being an 
advocate of the doctrine of states' rights. He supported the Union during the 
Civil War and died in i86y. 



33S ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Colonial 'Period 




PROGRESS OF HIGHWAY TRAXSPORTATIOX 



name of Nebraska, a territorial form of government for the 
entire Louisiana country west of Minnesota Territory, Iowa/ 
and Missouri. The bill to organize this territory was intro- 
duced in 1854 by Stephen A. Douglas,^ senator from Illinois. 

1 Iowa had been admitted as a state in 1846. 

^ Stephen A. Douglas was born in Vermont in 1813, and went to Illinois, 
where he became a judge of the state supreme court. He was representative 
in Congress and senator of the United States. He was an able orator, and was 

called from his small stature the " Little Giant," He died in 1S61. 



THE PERIOD OF ITNION 



339 



Douglas's bill provided for the right of the settlers to decide 
for themselves whether the territory should be slave or free. 
This was Cass's doctrine of popular, or squatter, sovereignty, 
which had been applied to New Mexico and Utah in the 
Compromise of 1850. The Compromise of 1850, Douglas 
declared, had rendered null and void the Missouri Compromise 
of 1820, which excluded slavery forever from this territory. 

He later amended his bill to pro- 
vide for two territories ; it is therefore 
called the Kansas-Nebraska Act.^ 

354. Effect of Introduction of 
Kansas-Nebraska Act. The act also 
declared that tlie Missouri Com- 
promise of 1820 was repealed. As 
soon as the act was introduced, a 
violent debate arose in Congress. 
Against the act were Chase, Sum- 
ner, Everett, and Seward. Those in 
favor of it were led by Douglas and 
Jefferson Davis. Meetings in pro- 
test were held in most Northern 
cities. Douglas was denounced, and 

he says his entire journey from Washington to Chicago was 
lighted by the blaze of his own burning effigies. 

The leaders of the South were entirely willing to see Nebraska 
a free state, but they claimed that Kansas should be a slave 
state. With the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act both sides 
rushed to secure the territory of Kansas before the other side 
should arrive. 

355. Result of Kansas-Nebraska Act. In spite of the most 
earnest opposition the act became a law (May 30, 1854). 

1 Kansas was to extend from 37° to 40^ north latitude, and Nebraska from 40'' 
to 49^^. It was thought Kansas, as it lay west of Missouri, would become a slave 
state, while Nebraska, adjoining Iowa, would become a free state. The territories 
of Kansas and Nebraska under this act were much larger than are the present 
States of that name, as they both extended westward to the Rocky Mountains. 




STEPHEN A. DOCGLAS 



340 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



The Missouri Compromise of 1820 had been the law of the 
land for thirty-four years, and everyone had felt that the area 
north of the line of ^6° 30' had been dedicated to freedom 
for all time. 

The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska^ Act upset these 
ideas, and the whole slavery question was open again for dis- 
cussion. The great and fertile 
lands west of the Mississippi 
were the prize to secure which 
the North and South now en- 
tered the contest. 

An immediate consequence 
of the Kansas-Nebraska Act 
was the formation of the Re- 
publican party at Jackson, 
Michigan, in July, 1854. This 
party was made up of Free- 
Soilers, antislavery Democrats, 
and antislavery Whigs, and it 
selected the name " Repub- 
lican " as standing for human 
liberty and the rights of man, 
as the Jeffersonian Republican 
party had. 
356. Ostend Manifesto. The desire, especially on the part 
of Southern leaders, to secure the rich island of. Cuba for the 
United States had led to many filibustering expeditions, which 

1 " It is safe to say that in the scope and consequences of the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act it was the most momentous measure that passed Congress 
from the day that the senators and representatives first met to the outbreak 
of the Civil War. It sealed the doom of the Whig party ; it caused the forma- 
tion of the Republican party on the principle of no extension of slavery. . . . 
It made the Fugitive Slave Law a dead letter at the North ; it caused the 
Germans to become Republicans ; it lost the Democrats their hold on New 
England ; it made the Northwest Republican ; it led to the downfall of 
the Democratic party." — Rhodes, " History of the United States," Vol. I, 
p. 490 





^ 




^3 




^^ 


"^. 


w/"^y^^/f /k- 



WILLIAM H. SEWARD 



THE PERIOD OE UNION 



341 



had all failed. In 1854, at the request of President Pierce, the 
American ministers to Great Britain, P'rance, and Spain — 
Buchanan, Mason, and Soule — met at Ostend in Belgium and 
drew up the so-called Ostend Manifesto. They declared that 
Spain should sell Cuba to the United States, and if she refused 
to do so, the United States would have the right to seize the 



°?,>' OP ^0^ 





%'»°*\ o" y ^'P .Kansas TERRiTORvf'"'-^ L^- V 'b % 

) X^-^^rO^ — -■-•— ^ i _ V^- -■"^'^'"' r^' 




EFFECT OF THE KANSAS-XEBRASKA ACT 



island by force if necessary. No action was taken by our 
government on this extraordinary and unlawful proposition, 
and for forty-four years longer Cuba remained under the flag 
of Spain. 

357. The Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1858. The struggle 
for Kansas had now begun. P>om the neighboring slave state 
of Missouri settlers armed with rifles poured over the border, 
hoping by force of numbers to make a slave territory of 
Kansas, They established the towns of Atchison, Leaven- 
worth, and Lecompton. The PVee-Soil forces were also thor- 
oughly aroused. Societies were organized in Northern cities to 
send settlers to the territory, one of which — the New England 
Emigrant Aid Society — equipped a number of expeditions. 



342 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The towns of Lawrence and Topeka were founded by the 
Free-Soilers. These settlers came also with rifles. Both 
sides showed a grim determination to win the territory. 

358. Civil War in Kansas. Violence reigned everywhere in 
" bleeding Kansas," and civil war virtually followed. Both sides 
were guilty of crimes of violence and bloodshed. The new 
town of Lawrence was burned by the slavery men, and John 
Brown made up a party and attacked a small settlement of 
pro-slavery squatters, murdering five of them. On the elec- 
tion (November, 1854) of a delegate to Congress the great 
struggle began. Armed bands of slavery men from Missouri 
roamed throughout the country taking possession of the polls. 
A slavery delegate was elected. Congress, however, refused, on 
the ground of fraud at the polls, to seat the delegate that 
had been elected. 

Four months later (March, 1855) the election of members 
for the territorial government was to occur. This was the crisis 
of the struggle, as success for the slavery men meant a slave 
state of Kansas. The slavery forces won, and at a convention 
held at Lecompton slavery and a most stringent slave code 
were formally established. 

The antislavery men held a convention at Topeka, declared 
the Lecompton convention an illegal body, made an antislavery 
constitution, and submitted it to a popular vote. As no slavery 
men voted, this constitution was adopted, and thus two gov- 
ernments were organized. This strife lasted until 1858, when 
the numbers of the free men were so great that the slavery 
men gave up the struggle, and three years later Kansas, under 
a free constitution, was admitted to the Union. 

359. Perry's Expedition to Japan, 1853. One of the great 
events of Pierce's administration was the opening of commer- 
cial relations with Japan, At that time the only port open to 
the outside world was Nagasaki, and even here only the Dutch 
were allowed to land. In the summer of 1853 Commodore 
Matthew C. Perry anchored in the waters of Japan not far from 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



343 



the present site of Yokohama, bearing letters to the govern- 
ment of Japan asking for a treaty and the opening of the ports. 
The Japanese received his letters and promised to consider the 
matter. Perry replied that he would return the following year 
for an answer. He sailed to China and at the appointed time 
returned to Japan, where his perseverance was rewarded. A 
treaty was signed (1854) by which certain ports were opened 
for trade with the United States. This was the beginning of 
Japan's wondrous development. 

360. The Know-Nothings. The year 1854 was marked by 
the rise to power of the Know-Nothing, or Native American, 
party. ^ This was a secret, oath-bound organization that was 
based on hostility to foreigners and especially to Roman 
Catholics, native or foreign. 

For some years immigration had been increasing with won- 
derful strides as a result of the development of ocean steam 
navigation, of the revolutions in Europe, — especially in Germany 
and Austria- Hungary, — and of the fearful famine in Ireland. 
American politics at this time were in a condition of unrest 
and turmoil. The leaders of the Know-Nothings took advan- 
tage of this condition to organize a bitter opposition to Catho- 
lics. A disgraceful period of rioting and bloodshed followed. 
The Papal Nuncio, who was visiting America at this time, was 
burned in effigy in Baltimore, and the militia was needed to 
quell the riots when he visited Cincinnati. A stone sent by 
the Pope for the Washington monument was destroyed. 
Catholic churches or convents were burned in Charlestown, 
Newark, New York, Bath, Philadelphia, and Louisville, while 
the homes of Catholics were destroyed in many cities. At 
Ellsworth, Maine, Father John Bapst, the Jesuit missionary, 
was tarred and feathered. It became necessary to entirely sus- 
pend public worship in the Catholic churches of Philadelphia. 

1 At the outset they conducted all their proceedings in secret. In answer 
to every question about themselves they answered, "I don't know," whence 
arose the name of Know-.\othings. 



344 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Know-Nothings obtained their first political successes 
in the national election of 1854.^ 

In that year they carried Massachusetts and Delaware, polled 
one hundred and twenty-two thousand votes in New York, and 
elected seventy-five members of the national House of Repre- 
sentatives. In the following year they were victorious in Massa- 
chusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New 
York, and Kentucky. In the presidential campaign of 1856 
they nominated Fillmore and carried only one state. Lord Balti- 
more's former colony, Maryland. After this crushing defeat 
their power began to wane, and they merged themselves with 
other political parties. 

361. Election of Buchanan. As the time approached for the 
election of a president to succeed Pierce the old parties were 
radically changed. The support of the Compromise of 1850, 
the Fugitive Slave Law, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act had 
turned thousands of Northern Whigs against their party, and 
Webster and Clay were no longer alive to advance its fortunes. 
Many of the antislavery Democrats had resolved to leave their 
party because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The new Repub- 
lican party held its first national convention at Philadelphia, 
in 1856. John C. Fremont was nominated for president. The 
Democrats nominated James Buchanan, who was elected. 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of Pierce's administration (1853-1857) were: 

The Ostend Manifesto of 1854. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. 

The rise of the Republican party. 

The struggle for Kansas (185 4- 185 8). 

Perry's expedition to Japan in 1853. 

The Know-Nothing movement of 1854. 

1 The so-called A. P. A. (American Protective Association) about four 
decades later attempted to reestablish a party on the earlier Know-Nothing 
platform. A similar movement has been the recent Guardians of Liberty 
organization. 



THE PERIOD OE UNION 345 

IUciianan's Admimsikation,! 1857-1861 

362. The Dred Scott Decision, 1857. Two clays after 
Buchanan's inauguration the United States Supreme Court 
rendered the famous Dred Scott decision. Ured Scott was 
a slave whose owner, an army surgeon, had taken him from 
Missouri to Illinois, a free state, where he resided four years. 
Later he was taken to Minnesota Territory, where slavery was 
forbidden under the Missouri Compromise. He returned with 
his master after a time to Missouri. Some years later Scott 
sued his owner for his freedom, claiming that his residence 
on free soil had made him a free man. His case reached the 
United States Supreme Court, which decided that Dred Scott, 
being a negro slave, was not a citizen and could not become 
one ; that he could not therefore bring a suit in the United 
States courts ; that his residence on free soil did not make 
him free ; ^ that Congress could not prevent slave-owners from 
taking their slaves with them wherever they desired to go, as 
they would their cattle or other property ; and, finally, that 
the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and therefore 
null and void, as it prohibited slavery in that part of the 
Louisiana Territory which lay north of 36° 30' and conse- 
quently prevented slave-owners from carrying their property 
(slaves) into the territory. This decision opened all the 
territories of the United States to slavery and made Douglas's 
theory of popular sovereignty a farce. Great indignation arose 
throughout the North at the decision, while the South believed 
it had won a great victory, and two years later, in a commercial 
convention of nine Southern states at Vicksburg, the repeal 
of all laws, state or Federal, prohibiting the African slave trade 
was approved by a vote of forty to nineteen. 

1 James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791. He served in Con- 
gress, was minister to Russia and England, and was Secretary of State. lie 
was elected president in 1S56 and died in 1S6S. 

- After the decision of the Supreme Court. Dred Scott and his family 
were given their freedom by their owner. 



346 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

363. The Crisis of 1857. New States. Five months after 
Buchanan's inauguration an Ohio bank failed. It was the be- 
ginning of a widespread crisis, which in the main was occa- 
sioned by excessive investment in railroad building. Factories 
were closed, and men by thousands were thrown out of employ- 
ment. For two years there was great suffering, but at last busi- 
ness again revived and the country became prosperous. 

Gold was discovered in Colorado, which caused a great rush 
of population there. From the large influx of gold-seekers 
Denver grew quickly to be a city. Gold and silver were discov- 
ered in Nevada at this time. A most important discovery was 
that of oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859, which resulted 
in the boring of thousands of oil wells in Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
West Virginia, and Indiana. From the refined petroleum is 
obtained kerosene and gasoline, which have had such an 
important influence on civilization. These discoveries were 
great factors in restoring prosperity to the Union. 

At this time Minnesota was admitted to the Union (1858). 
Oregon became a state in 1859, with a constitution which 
excluded free negroes from the state. 

364. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858. In 1858 the 
Democrats of Illinois renominated Douglas for United States 
senator. Abraham Lincoln was chosen by the Republicans as 
their candidate. He challenged Douglas to a series of seven 
joint debates. These debates were held in various parts of the 
state. Treating as they did of popular sovereignty, slavery, and 
the Dred Scott decision, they aroused the interest of the whole 
nation. Douglas upheld the doctrine of popular sovereignty, 
while Lincoln took the side of the Missouri Compromise and 
the Wilmot Proviso. Lincoln was defeated, that is, the Demo- 
crats won control of the state legislature, which insured the 
election of their candidate Douglas as senator ; but the promi- 
nence which these debates gave Lincoln made him a prominent 
candidate for the nomination for the presidency in the ensuing 
Republican national convention. 



THK I'RRIOI) OF UNION 



347 



365. John Brown's Raid, 1859. The bitterness of feeling 
between the slavery and antislavery men was intensified by the 
John Brown raid. John Brown, who, as we have seen, had taken 
an active part in the Kansas struggle, arranged a plan to seize 
the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry and, with the aid 
of armed negroes, to establish a refuge in the mountains for 
runaway slaves. From this refuge he planned to wage war on 



f^ ^^ ^^ 



3 Mi/ r 






[HE LINCOLX-IJOl'GLAS UEHATES 



the South, using as soldiers the freed slaves. With nineteen 
followers he seized (October 16, 1859) the arsenal, expecting 
the slaves would rise and join him. His enterprise was a failure. 
The arsenal was quickly captured. Brown was taken prisoner. 
He was tried for murder and treason, found guilty, and hanged. 
Brown's raid had no support at the North beyond his personal 
friends, but it created a feeling of bitter resentment in the 
South, where it was believed to be the beginning of a general 
movement for the liberation of the slaves. This movement 
would be aided, they believed, by the national government if 
the Republicans should come into power. 



348 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

366. Election of Lincoln. In 1861 Buchanan's term would 
expire, and a bitter struggle for the presidency now began. 
The Democratic convention met (April, i860) at Charleston, 
South Carolina, but the Northern and Southern delegates could 
not agree on the slavery question, and the convention dissolved. 
Another convention, made up of Northern Democrats, met in 
Baltimore and nominated (June 18, i860) Stephen A, Douglas 
for president. 

The Southern delegates a few days later also met in Balti- 
more and nominated John C, Breckenridge of Kentucky, The 
remnants of the Whigs and the Know-Nothings nominated 
John Bell of Tennessee. The Republican convention at 
Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln and demanded chiefly 
the admission of Kansas as a free state, the maintenance of 
freedom in the territories, and a railroad to the Pacific, while 
they rejected the principles of the Dred Scott decision, 
Lincoln 1 was elected. 

367. The Beginnings of Secession. The election of Lincoln 
was soon followed by the secession of South Carolina. A con- 
vention passed (December 20, i860) an ordinance of secession 
in the following words : " We, the people of the state of South 
Carolina, in convention assembled, do declare and ordain, . , . 
that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and 
other states, under the name of the United States of America, 
is hereby dissolved." 

South Carolina thus declared itself to be an independent 
nation. Events came to a crisis rapidly ; Mississippi, Florida, 

1 Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809. His parents 
were very poor. He moved with them to Indiana and helped to cut the logs 
for their cabin. For this reason he was often called the " Rail Splitter." The 
Lincoln family later moved to Illinois. Taking advantage of what opportuni- 
ties he had, he studied law and was admitted to the bar. He was called by his 
neighbors " Honest Abe." In 1S46 he was elected to Congress. He was a can- 
didate against Douglas for the United States Senate in 1858, but was defeated. 
Two years later he was elected president, with Hannibal Hamlin as vice presi- 
dent. In 1S64 he was reelected, with Andrew Johnson as vice president. He 
was assassinated April 14, 1865. 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 



349 



Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, and Texas seceded, and delegates 

from six states gathered (I^^ebruary 4, 1861) at Montgomery, 

Alabama, formed a new government, drew up a provisional 

constitution,^ and called themselves the Confederate States of 

America. Jefferson Davis''^ was 

elected president, and the Stars 

and Bars adopted as a flag. 

United States arsenals and forts 

had been seized, but Fort 

Sumter in Charleston harbor 

was held for the Union by 

Major Robert Anderson. As 

he was short of supplies, the 

Federal government dispatched 

a steamer. The Star of the West, 

w-ith supplies for Anderson. 

The South Carolina batteries 

at once opened fire upon the 

vessel (January 9, 1861), and it 

was compelled to return. 

Senator Crittenden proposed 
at this time a compromise that all north of 36° 30' should be 
free and all south of that line slave, that territories should decide 
whether to be free or slave, and that the Constitution should 
never be amended to abolish slavery in the states. The Com- 
promise failed. 

1 The leading features in which this constitution differed from that of the 
I'nited States were the "sovereign and independent character" of each 
state; the prohibition of a protective tariff; the recognition of negro slavery; 
the right of members of the cabinet to speak in Congress ; and the ineligi- 
bility for reelection of the president and vice president, to whom a six-year 
term of office was given. 

-Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in iSoS, and graduated from 
West Point in iS::8. lie fought in the Mexican War and served in both 
Houses of Congress. lie withdrew from the Senate when his state, Missis- 
sippi, seceded. Alexander II. Stephens was a native of Georgia. He was 
serving his sixth term in Congress when he was elected vice president 
of the Confederacy. 




JKFFKKSON I)A\IS 



350 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



SUMMARY 

The leading events of Buchanan's administration (1857-1861) were : 

The Dred Scott decision of 1857, which opened the free territories 
to slavery. ' 

The crisis of 1857. 

The discovery of gold, silver, and oil. 

The admission of Minnesota (1858) and Oregon(i859)to the Union. 

The Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. 

John Brown's raid in 1859. 

The beginnings of secession and the formation of the Southern 
Confederacy. 



Dates to he remembered : 


1846. 


War with Mexico. 


1848. 


Discovery of gold in California. 


1850. 


The Omnibus Bill. 


1854. 


The Kansas-Nebraska Act. 


1857- 


The Dred Scott decision. 


i860. 


Election of Lincoln. 




Secession of South Carolina. 




Establishment of the Southern Confederacy 


Important dates for reference : 


1834. 


McCormick develops the reaper. 


1837- 


The electric telegraph invented. 


1846. 


Discovery of ether. 


1853- 


Gadsden Purchase. 


1854. 


Rise of the Republican party. 



REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Show how the Missouri Compromise was violated by the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act of 1854. 

2. State the causes and give in detail the results of the war with Mexico. 

3. What was the Omnibus Bill ? State its provisions. On this bill what 
was the attitude of Clay, Webster, Seward, and Calhoun ? 

4. Relate the circumstances attending the organization of Kansas and 
Nebraska as territories. Define squatter sovereignty. Who was the author 
of the idea.'' 



THE PERIOD OF UNION 351 

5. Give an account of the Dred Scott decision, and show how it affected 
an important provision of the Missouri Compromise. State the effect of 
this decision on political parties in the North. 

6. Describe the missions of California. What was the result of the 
discovery of gold in California? 

7. What great discovery in 1846 brought epoch-making changes in 
surgery ? What invention lightened the labor of women .'' 

8. Show how the slavery question affected (a) the formation of the 
Constitution; {d) the admission of Missouri; (c) the annexation of Te.xas; 
(t/) the admission of California ; (e) the rise and fall of political parties. 

9. Mention one American invention in each of the following fields : 
transportation, communication, domestic work, agriculture, giving {a) approxi- 
mate date ; (d) name of the inventor ; (c) some account of the benefits 
derived. 

10. Draw a map of the United States and on it show how the country 
was divided by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. Indicate (a) the slave 
states ; {l>) the free states ; (r) the territory open to slavery by the principle 
of squatter sovereignty. 

READINGS 

Histories. Brooks, N., Li/c of Abraham Lincoln. Brown, W. G., 
Stephen Arnold Douglas. Dodo, W. E., Jefferson Davis. Engelhardt, 
Z., The Missions and Missionaries of California. Garrison, G. P., West- 
ward Extension. I rvino, W., Astoria. McLaughlin, A. C, Lewis Cass. 
Park.man, F., Oregon Trail. Rhodes, J. F., History of the UnitedStates, 
Vols. I and II. Sexton, E. M., Stories of California. Smith, Justin H., 
Annexation of Texas. Smith, T. C, Parties and Slavery, Stoddard, 
C. W., With the Padres. Thwaites, R. G., Stories of the Badger State. 
Williams, S., Some Successful Americans. Wilson, Woodkow. Division 
and Reunion. 

Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. I\\ p. 11 (California in 1835); 
p. 28 (Capture of the City of Mexico); p. 43 (A Forty-Niner) ; p. 48 
(Calhoun's " Danger of Disunion"); p. 52 (W^ebster's Seventh of March 
Speech) ; p. 56 (Seward's " Higher Law ") ; p. 80 (The Underground 
Railroad); p. 97 (Douglas on the Kansas-Nebraska Act); p. 122 (The 
Dred Scott Decision). MuzzEV, Readings, p. 335 (The Gold Seekers); 
p. 340 (The Omnibus Bill); p. 378 (Election of Abraham Lincoln); 
p. 388 (Alexander H. Stephens's Plea for Union): p. 394 (Secession; its 
Justification). 



352 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Fiction. Allen, J. L., A Ke7itucky Cardinal (z. tale of life about 1850 
in the central states). Bonner, G., The Emigrant Trail (a story of emi- 
gration to California). Brooks, N., The Boy Emigrants (describes the trip 
to the Pacific in the days of the gold discovery). Cable, G. W., Dr. Sevier 
(a story of New Orleans before the Civil War). Canfield, C. L., The City 
of Six (describes placer mining in California). Churchill, W., Coniston 
(a story which pictures the boss system in New York). Eggleston, 
Edward, The Graysons (a tale of Illinois). Eggleston, George Carv, 
Two Gentlemen of Virginia (treats of the slave question). Gale and 
Wheeler, -A Knight of the Wilderness (a story of the Middle West, 
introducing Lincoln and Davis). Harris, J. C, Free foe (a story of master 
and slave in Georgia). Kellv, F. F., Rhoda of the Underground (treats 
of the slave question). Kexxedv, J. P., Swallow Bam (a story of life in 
Virginia). Miller, L. B., The White River Raft (a tale of life on the 
Mississippi). Munroe, Kirk, With Crockett and Bowie (an interesting 
story of the Mexican War period). Smith, F. H., The Fortunes of Oliver 
Horn (a story of life in Washington and New York about the time of the 
Civil War). Stowe, H. B., Uncle Toni's Cabin (an abolitionist view of 
slavery in the South). Watts, M. S., Nathan Burke (a tale of the Mexi- 
can War). Whittier, J. G., The Angels of Buena Vista (a poem on a 
battle of the war with Mexico). ' Winthrop, T., fohn Brent (a story of 
the Mormons). 



CHAPTER XII 

"Two questions — that of state sovereignty primarily and directly and 
that of negro slavery secondarily and indirectly — were the supreme ques- 
tions involved in the American Civil War." — E. M. Banks 

THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 

Lincoln's Administration, i 861-1865 

368. Lincoln's First Inaugural, 1861. In his last message 
President Buchanan had declared that although the right of 
secession "was wholly inconsistent with the history as well as the 
character of the F'ederal Constitution," it was his belief that he 
could not lawfully coerce a state or compel it to stay in the Union. 
The nation now waited with anxiety for the new president. 

President Lincoln was inaugurated March 4, 1861. In his 
inaugural address he declared : "I have no purpose, directly 
or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the 
States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do 
so, and I have no inclination to do so." He declared that the 
Fugitive Slave Law should be executed, but with proper safe- 
guards for free negroes ; he maintained that the Union of States 
is perpetual and that " no State upon its own mere motion can 
lawfully get out of the Union ; that rrso/^rs and ordiiiaticcs to 
that effect are Icgallv void," and he would therefore use all the 
power of the nation " to hold, occupy, and possess the property 
and places belonging to the (Government " of the United States. 

369. Fall of Sumter. Lincoln determined to send men and 
supplies to P"ort Sumter at oncc.^ Hearing of this, General 

1 All the forts, arsenals, and public buildings in the South had fallen into 
the hands of the Confederates except Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens. Sumter 
fell, but Pickens was never captured during the war. 
353 



354 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



r .jii|iiii"| 



i|T|i';;ii7iii,|i]i viiMi'iMi,'|;iinj|;i,,7|iii'n 
i I ,,,1/ ',.il' !,, iii,liiiil!'i/i,.i i'mI, 







Beauregard immediately demanded the surrender of the fort. 
Major Anderson, who was in charge, refused to dehver it up, 
and before sunrise on April 12, 1861, the Confederate battery 
fired the first shot at Sumter. For thirty-four hours shot and 
shell rained on the fort. At last Major Anderson, seeing 

the uselessness of 
further delay, as he 
was without food or 
powder, surrendered 
the fort (April 14) 
and marched out 
with honors of war. 
The fearful Civil 
War had begun. 

370. The Strength 
and Weakness of 
the South. Let us 
now consider the 
resources and ad- 
x'antages that each 
side possessed at 
the outbreak of the 
war. Of the thirty- 
four states of the 
L^nion twenty-three 
remained loyal to the 
North and eleven 
to the South. 
In the matter of population the South was at a great dis- 
advantage. There were in the free states nineteen millions of 
people, in all the slave states twelve millions. As the slave 
states of Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, with three miL 
lions of people, remained in the Union, the North had 
twenty-two millions, while the seceding states had only nine 
millions, and three million of these were slaves. The South 



"mm 




ABRAHAM LINCOLN 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 355 

had the advantage of fighting on smaller defensive lines 
and in a country with which they were thoroughly familiar. 
They were enthusiastically united because they felt they were 
fighting for tlicir homes and against invasion. Accustomed to 
the use of firearms, they were skilled marksmen. They suf- 
fered great disadvantages because of their industrial condition. 
They had few manufactories or machine shops, few navy yards, 
and no seafaring population to draw from in manning any ves- 
sels they might build. Their coal and iron mines had been 
undeveloped, and almost every article of food or clothing was 
imported in exchange for cotton. Cotton was the foundation 
of the wealth of the South. By cutting 
off, through the blockade, the export of 
cotton the North dealt the South a vital 
blow. The negro slaves tilled the soil, 
while every white man went to the front. 
There was practically no reserve force, 
and the losses in battle told heavily, as coxfkderate flag 
the places of the men who had been (-phe stars and Bars) 
killed and wounded could never be filled. 

371. The Condition of the North. The North had a great 
advantage before the world in being in possession of the 
established government and the historic flag of the United 
States. It was waging a war for the integrity of its national 
life, although freedom and slavery were the real causes behind 
the struggle. It had a large population of free men, almost 
four times as many as the seceding states. This allowed it to 
continue uninterrupted its manufactories and to recruit con- 
stantly the armies in the field. It had numberless machine 
shops, foundries, gim factories, and shipyards, with a large 
supply of skilled machinists. Its merchant marine and fish- 
eries had raised up a race of hardy sailors. It had numerous 
railroads to move the troops easily from point to point, and soon 
had gunboats to ply the great rivers and penetrate the heart 
of the South. It quickly secured vessels of all descriptions 




356 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

to maintain an effective blockade. Both sides were mistaken 
in underrating their opponents. The North thought it would 
be a ninety days' affair. The South believed that the North 
would not and could not fight ; that their mercantile life had 
unfitted them for soldiers ; and that they would never be united 
in any policy that looked to the coercion of the South. 

372, The Border States. European Hostility to the North. 
The first great problem was the future of the Border States. 
They were slaveholding states and contained naturally many 
Southern sympathizers. Possessing the Border States, the 
South could make the Ohio and the Potomac its northern 
boundary, a very effectual barrier. Of these Border States, 
Delaware at once declared for the Union ; Virginia ^ joined 
the Confederacy ; but Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, for 
a time doubtful, remained loyal to the Union. The area of 
the seceding states was equal to the combined area of Belgium, 
Holland, F'rance, Germany, Spain, and Italy. The South had 
many sympathizers in England, and from Napoleon III of 
PVance it received secret support. The French emperor, at 
that time planning to establish an empire in Mexico, looked 
upon the success of the South as more favorable to his enter- 
prise. Russia was favorable at all times to the Union. The 
Southern leaders believed that the manufacturing nations of 
Europe would interfere to break any blockade that might be 
established and to secure the cotton so essential to their exist- 
ence. In this they were sorely disappointed.'^ President Lincoln 
sent Thurlow Weed to England and Archbishop Hughes of 

1 Forty-eight counties in the western part of Virginia had few slaves and 
were not in sympathy with the " tidewater " Virginians. When Virginia joined 
the Confederacy, these Western counties declared for the Union and asked 
for admission as the state of Kanawha. They were admitted in 1S63 under 
the name of West Virginia. 

- The declaration of Alexander H. Stephens at this time, making slavery 
virtually the corner stone of the Confederacy, may have tended to prevent 
the nations of Europe that had already abolished slavery from openly aiding 
the South. Stephens had earnestly opposed secession, but went with his native 
state of Georgia when it seceded. 



THK PERIOD OF DISUNION 



357 



New York to France to influence public opinion by presenting 
the Union cause from the standpoint of the North, and both 
rendered great service to the national government. 

373. The Plan of the War. A glance at the map will show 
that the Southern Confederacy was divided in its physical 
features into three sections by 
the Alleghenies and the Missis- 
sippi. The plan adopted by the 
national government was : first, 
to blockade the entire Southern 
coast, thus cutting off all sup- 
plies and exports ; second, to 
capture Richmond and the army 
of Virginia ; third, to force the 
Union army like a wedge through 
the Southern lines between the 
Alleghenies and the Missis- 
sippi, and thereby dismember 
the Confederacy ; and fourth, 
to regain control of the Missis- 
sippi, cutting off the great West 
and Southwest and attacking the 
Confederacy on its left flank. 
This would cut off a great source of supply of men and goods. 

Much to the disappointment of the United States, which 
maintained that the Southern states were merely in insur- 
rection, Great Britain ^ acknowledged (May 13, 1861) the bellig- 
erent rights of the Confederacy by issuing a proclamation of 
neutrality forbidding Englishmen to take part in the war on 
either side. This proclamation did not acknowledge the in- 
dependence of the Confederacy, but declared that war existed 

1 While England was opposed to slavery, it wished our cotton, and it disliked 
exceedingly the high Morrill tariff which had recently been enacted and which 
shut out English manufactured goods. With almost free trade in the Con- 
federacy. England could buy cotton there and ship in manufactured goods, 
making it a very profitable arrangement. 




ARCHBISHOP HUGHES 



358 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

between the sections. France quickly followed with a similar 
proclamation, and was followed by Spain, the Netherlands, and 
other nations of Europe.^ 

374. The Call to Arms. At the news of Sumter the mass 
of the people in the North, without regard to party, religion, 
or color, rose for the defense of the Union .^ Throughout the 
South there was an equal outburst of patriotism for the stars 
and bars, as the new Southern flag was called. President 
Lincoln called (April 15, 1861) for seventy-five thousand troops, 
and three hundred thousand volunteers came to the front. 

375. Battle of Bull Run, or Manassas Junction, July 21, 
1861. The Confederate government moved from Montgomery 
to Richmond, and the cry throughout the North became, '' On 
to Richmond ! " General McDowell was ordered to attack the 
Confederates, under Beauregard, stationed at Bull Run,''^ or 
Manassas Junction, about thirty miles southwest of Washington. 
The battle was fought Sunday, July 21, 186 1. At the outset 
the Union forces drove back the Confederates, but the latter 
were rallied by General T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson.'* At the 

1 Another reason for the neutrality proclamation was given by the English 
statesman Lord John Russell, who wrote : " Upwards of five million free men 
have been for some time in open revolt against the president and Congress of 
the United States. It is not our practice to treat five millions of free men as 
pirates and to hang their sailors if they attempt to stop our merchantmen. 
But unless we meant to treat them as pirates and to hang them, we could not 
deny them belligerent rights." At this time England was ruled by the aris- 
tocracy, which looked with fear on the successful establishment of the demo- 
cratic United States as a menace to their rule and privileges. They had 
opposed the extension of the Reform Act of 1832. The effect of the triumph 
of the North was seen in the immediate passage of a further reform act in 1867. 

2 Of the former presidents then living, Van Buren, Pierce, and Buchanan 
stood by the Union. Tyler joined the Confederacy when his native state 
Virginia seceded (April 17, 1861). The Democratic leader Stephen A. Douglas 
at once pledged his support and that of his followers to President Lincoln. 

^ /v'//« means a small stream of running water. 

* In the thick of the fight a Confederate general, pointing to Jackson, 
rallied his men, exclaiming, " There stands Jackson like a stone wall ! " From 
that time he was known as Stonewall Jackson. lie was born in Virginia (1824), 
graduated from West Point, and served for two years in the Mexican War. 



127 122 117 112 107 Longitude 102 W< 




Approximate limit occupied by 
• U.S. Troops Julii /, IS6I 

Sherman's March 

Railroads [T'rn Union States 
J- Blockade | " | Early Secession 

K Forts L I Later " J 

. ._ __ _^^i ^ 



Longitude 25 West 




from 15 Washington 10 




THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 359 

critical moment fresh troops under General Joseph E. Johnston 
hurried from the Shenandoah valley, joined the Confederates, 
and struck the Union forces on the flank. The latter broke 
and fled, demoralized and panic-stricken, to the defenses of 
Washington. The defeat caused dismay throughout the North. 
There was great rejoicing in the South, and many Southerners, 
believing the war to be over, returned to their homes. 

376. Appointment of McClellan. The War in Missouri. The 
defeat at Bull Run brought for the first time clearly before 
the North the crisis in its national life that 
it had to face. It now saw that the war 
would not be a ninety days' affair, and 
that the South would not only fight but 
fight valiantly. Congress voted two hun- 
dred and fifty million dollars and five 
hundred thousand men.^ General George 
B. McClellan,^ who had practically driven 
the Confederates out of western Virginia, stonewall jackson 
was appointed general in chief, under the 
President, of the United States armies. In the West, Kansas had 
been admitted (January 29, 1 861) and was strongly in favor of the 
Union. Missouri was held by the loyal citizens, who overthrew the 
state government, which was strongly in favor of the Confederacy. 

To alleviate as far as possible the horrors of war a Sanitary 
Commission was organized. In addition to this commission 
the Sisters of the various religious communities gave their serv- 
ices in the hospitals and on the firing line, winning for them- 
selves the title of "Angels of the Battlefield."^ 

1 As there was practically no money in the national treasury. Congress 
increased the duties on imports and placed taxes on liquors, spirits, tobacco, 
bank checks, on trades, professions, and, to the amount of three per cent, on 
incomes of more than eight hundred dollars per year. 

- General George B. McClellan was born in Philadelphia in iS::6, graduated 
from West Point, and served in the Mexican War. 

^ In 1918 Congress voted permission for a monument to be erected in Wash- 
ington as a tribute to the Sisters who served on the battlefields of the Civil War. 



36o 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 




Chambersburg-,- — ^ i 3for 

p E N N s^^r^^^ i^^-^r::^.. 

t A.';_Gettysburg_ 



THE WAR IX THE EAST 



The Confederates were attacked (August lo, 1861) at Wilson's 
Creek by General Nathaniel Lyon, but he was defeated and 
killed. At Lexington on the Missouri the Confederates attacked 
Colonel James A. Mulligan, who held them at bay until he was 
finally overwhelmed. The Confederates now took a stand at Pea 
Ridge in southwestern Missouri,^ but were defeated (March 7, 
1862). Missouri was now safely in the grasp of the Union. 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 361 

377. The Blockade. One of the most difficult tasks before 
the h'cdcral government was the blockading of the Southern 
coast. In April President Lincoln announced to the nations 
of the world that the coast from the Potomac to the Rio 

. Grande was blockaded, and vessels of all nations were forbidden 
to go in or out. To enforce the blockade armed vessels were 
stationed along the entire coast. By May, 1862, the blockade 
was so effective that the entire Atlantic coast of the Confed- 
eracy was i:)ractically cut off from outside assistance. This 
measure was of great importance ^ in carrying on the war. It 
prevented the export of cotton and thereby reduced the revenues 
of the South ; it rendered difficult the purchase of arms and 
munitions of war, — a vital blow, as the South had few gun 
factories or machine shops. To overcome the blockade fast 
vessels were built. They were called " blockade runners." 
They were mostly English, manned by English sailors, and 
made their headquarters at Nassau in the Bahamas. 

378. The Trent Affair. In November, 1861, an event 
occurred which brought us to the verge of war with England. 
Mason and Slidell, two Confederate commissioners, bound for 
England and PYance, sailed from Havana for Europe on the 
British steamer Trent. They were sent to secure the aid of 
England and P>ance for the Confederacy. Captain Wilkes, 
of a United States sloop of war, stopped and boarded the 
Trent and took off Mason and Slidell. Great indignation 
was expressed throughout England at the act, and war was 
imminent. President Lincoln disavowed the act, however, as 
the United States had always strenuously opposed the so- 
called " right of search." The commissioners were therefore 
placed upon another English warship and sent to Pmgland.^ 

^ " It was the blockade rather than the ravages of the army that sapped the 
industrial strength of the Confederacy." — Schwai:, "Confederate States 
of America," p. 236 

- By her action in this matter England gave up forever her earlier doctrine 
of the " right of search." It was therefore a diplomatic victory for Secretary 
Seward, who managed the affair with great tact and ability. 



362 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

379. The Privateers. Public opinion in England, especially 
among the aristocracy, or so-called "upper classes," in the 
early days of the Civil War was very hostile to the Federal 
government. The "middle" and "lower" classes were favor- 
able to the Union. Many leading English statesmen ^ favored 
the Confederacy, Gladstone hailing the secession of the South 
as the birth of a new nation. Although England had abolished 
slavery throughout her own dominions, her attitude helped to 
maintain the institution in the Western world. One of the 
most injurious consequences of the indifference of the English 
government was the building of privateers in English ship- 
yards. At the outbreak of the Civil War our merchant vessels 
were sailing every sea, bearing merchandise to every part of 
the world. To cripple this source of revenue and strength the 
Confederate government issued "letters of marque" to priva- 
teers, who thereupon went forth to destroy Northern vessels. 
The Sumter, under Captain Semmes, escaped the blockade 
(June, 1 86 1), and for six months swept the seas. In the Eng- 
lish shipyards the building of privateers was hurried by the 
Confederates. The Florida was launched at Liverpool, and the 
fate of the most famous of all, the Alabama, we shall see later. 



The battle of Bull Run was won by the Confederates. 

The Union army was defeated at Wilson's Creek, but Missouri 
was held in the Union. 

The blockade was established along the Southern seaboard and 
became very effective. * 

Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners to Europe, were 
taken (November 8) from the Treiit, and England prepared for war. 
The Federal government acknowledged its error and returned the 
commissioners to an English warship. 

1 Of the men in English public life or distinguished in the world of letters, 
John Bright, Cobden, John Stuart Mill, Tennyson, W. E. Forster, and Sir 
Charles Lyell favored the Union cause. Palmerston, Gladstone, Grote, Dickens, 
Carlyle, and E. A. Freeman were unsympathetic or openly hostile to the North. 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 



363 



Tin-: War in 1862 

380. The Plan against Richmond. The plan of campaign at 
the opening of the )-ear 1862 involved chiefly the capture of 
Richmond and the control of the Mississippi. To carry out 
the first part of the plan McClellan, with the Army of the 
Potomac, was directed to march across Virginia to Richmond. 
By this arrangement the Northern army would always be 
interposed between the 
Confederates and Wash- 
ington. McClellan pre- 
ferred to move up the 
James River. Finally, it 
was decided to station a 
small force under Banks 
and Fremont in the Shen- 
andoah valley to prevent 
the Southern troops from 
sweeping through it into 
Washington. McDowell 
was ordered to march 
from Washington to Fred- 
ericksburg and thence 
to Richmond. McClellan 

was to sail up the York River to Yorktown, and marchin 
the peninsula, join McDowell and capture Richmond. 

381. The Peninsular Campaign. McClellan, who had spent 
many months drilling and organizing his troops, landed at 
Yorktown to begin his march up the peninsula formed by the 
York and the James rivers. Here he was confronted by the 
Confederates, who delayed the progress of the Union forces 
for a month and then drew back towards Richmond. At 
Williamsburg (May 4-5) the Confederates under General 
Joseph K. Johnston again held the Federals in check. The 
position of the Union army was a most unfortunate one. The 




SCALE OF MILES 



THP; WAR 1\ VIRGINIA 



up 



364 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



country was swampy, the rains had swollen the brooks into 
torrents, and progress was attended with great difficulty. At 
every step McClellan had to fight his way. With one part of 
his army on the southern side of the Chickahominy and the 
remainder on the northern side, McClellan awaited the arrival 

of McDowell, who was 
posted at Fredericks- 
burg with forty thou- 
sand men to guard the 
road to the national 
capital. In the distance 
McClellan could hear 
the bells of Richmond 
and see the spires of the 
churches. As a result 
of the heavy rains the 
Chickahominy suddenly 
began to rise and widened 
into a lake. Johnston 
now fell upon the 
Union forces south of 
the river and virtually 
defeated them at Fair 
Oaks, or Seven Pines 
(May 31-June I). In 
this battle General Joseph E. Johnston was sev'erely wounded, 
and Robert E. Lee took command.^ 

In the meantime Stonewall Jackson suddenly appeared in 
the Shenandoah valley and demoralized the Federal forces, 
defeating successively Milroy and Banks. Washington was 
thrown into a panic. McDowell was immediately ordered by 
President Lincoln, against McClellan's protest, to head off 

^ To win the antislavery element in England, President Lincoln early in 
1862 made a treaty with Great Britain to suppress the foreign slave trade on 
the coast of Africa. 




(,em:ral k 



THE PERIOD C)l' DISUNION 365 

Jackson in the Shenandoah valley. Jackson escaped by defeat- 
ing Fremont and Shields. The withdrawal of McDowell was 
exactly what General Lee had hoped for. With Jackson now 
to aid him he at once attacked McClellan, forcing him to fall 
back to the James River. It required seven days to carry out 
this mov^ement, the Union forces losing fifteen thousand men.^ 
At the last fight, at Malvern Hill (July i), Lee was repulsed with 
heavy loss. The campaign against Richmond was a failure. 

382. Battle of Cedar Mountain. Second Battle of Bull Run, 
August 30, 1862. President Lincoln (July 2) issued a procla- 
mation calling for three hundred thousand more volunteers. 
General Halleck was now in command of all the Union armies 
in the field. He ordered McClellan to leave the James, and 
taking his forces to the Potomac, to join them to the army 
under Pope. Lee, no longer fearing for Richmond, now has- 
tened to attack Pope, who commanded the Union forces in 
northern Virginia. Jackson defeated Pope's right wing at 
Cedar Mountain. McClellan's troops now came up, and 
against the united force stationed on the old battlefield of Bull 
Run (August 30) Lee hurled his armv. Pope was defeated and 
retreated toward Washington, resigning his command, which 
was again given to McClellan. It was feared Washington 
would fall into the hands of the Confederates. 

383. Battle of Antietam, September 16-17, 1862. Lee now 
determined to invade the North and, crossing the Potomac, 
entered Maryland. Stonewall Jackson seized Harper's Ferr)- 
witli its military stores. Twelve thousand men fell prisoners 
into his hands. McClellan hastened to head off Lee, and the 
forces met (September 16-17) at Antietam Creek near Sharps- 
burg. A bloody battle was fought, each side losing about 
twelve thousand men, killed and wounded. Although both 

1 The Seven Days' Battles were fought at Mechanicsville (June 26), 
Gaines's Mill (June 27). Savage Station (June 29), Glendale. or Frayser's 
Farm (June 30), and Malvern Hill (July i). In these battles the Confederate 
loss was about twenty thousand men. killed and wounded. 



366 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

sides suffered equally, McClellan won a partial victory, as he 
stopped the advance of Lee, who now retired across the 
Potomac. McClellan 's failure to follow up his victory by 
pursuing Lee displeased the government, and Burnside was 
appointed to succeed him. 

384. Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862. Burn- 
side now started for Richmond. He reached the Rappahannock 
and saw before him, on the heights of Fredericksburg, Lee 
posted in a commanding position. The Confederates were 
strongly intrenched on a hill called Marye's Heights, and 
Burnside ordered an attack (December 13). The troops crossed 
the river and charged over the level plain to the foot of the 
hill and up the steep height, while the Confederate batteries 
tore their ranks with shot and shell. Among the assailants 
was Meagher's Irish Brigade. " Six times," says Longstreet, 
' ' in the face of a withering fire, before which whole ranks 
were mowed down as corn before the sickle, did the Irish 
Brigade run up the hill — rush to inevitable death." The 
attack was a disastrous failure, over twelve thousand Union 
soldiers falling on the field. The Confederates lost about 
five thousand. Burnside retired across the Rappahannock 
and later yielded his command to Hooker. 

385. The Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9, 1862. When 
the Union forces abandoned the Norfolk Navy Yard at the 
outbreak of the war, they sank a frigate called the Merriuiac. 
The Confederates raised it, covered it with plaies made from 
railroad iron, and named it the Vu'ghiia. She sailed out into 
Hampton Roads (March 8, 1862), and attacked and sank the 
Cumberland, whose shot and shell fell harmlessly on her sides. 
The Congress was next doomed, and the flames, lighting up 
the sky,, told of her fate. The Mcrrinicie now cast anchor 
in the channel for the night. The news of the destruction 
wrought by the Merriinac struck terror to the North. On this 
very night a strange-looking craft came into the harbor. It was 
the Monitor, designed by the Swedish engineer Ericsson. She 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 



367 



resembled, it was said, a cheese box on a raft. She was built 
of iron, one fifth of the size of the Mcrrhnac. Her turret 
revolved, and she carried two eleven-inch guns. 

The next morning (March 9) the Mcrrimac steamed out to 
complete her work of destruction, when the little Monitor 
appeared. The Mct-rimac tried in vain to run her down. 
A fierce battle ensued for four hours, when the Monitor with- 
drew to the shallow waters offshore. The Merrimac, somewhat 
damaged, thereupon returned to Norfolk. Neither vessel had 




THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC 

been able to destroy the other, but the Monitor had saved the 
Union shipping from destruction.^ This battle gave the death- 
blow to wooden warships and rendered necessary the entire 
rebuilding of the navies of the world.^ 

386. The War in the West. Capture of Fort Henry, 
February 6, 1862, and Fort Donelson, February 16, 1862. 
The Confederate line of defense stretched along the northern 
boundary of Tennessee from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi 
and was commanded by General Albert Sidney Johnston, one 



1 Neither of these vessels rendered much further service. The Merrimac 
was destroyed (May ii, 1862) by the Confederates when Norfolk fell, and the 
Monitor was lost in a gale off Hatteras. 

- As early as 1858 France and England had built ironclads. From this 
time the building of wooden warships ceased. 



368 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



of the ablest of the Confederate generals. It was the plan of 
the North to break this line. A point of great importance was 
Cumberland Gap. To secure this, General George H. Thomas^ 
attacked the Confederates at Mill Springs (January 19, 1862) 
and defeated them. The upper Cumberland was now lost to 
the South. To hold the two great rivers, the Cumberland and 




SCALE OF Mn-ES 



50 100 200 300 

THE WAR IN THE WEST 

the Tennessee, was of the utmost importance to the South, as 
these waterways penetrated as far south as Mississippi, Ala- 
bama, and Georgia. A glance at the map will show that the 
two rivers almost join each other in northern Tennessee and 
Kentucky. To control these rivers two forts were erected, Fort 
Donelson on the Cumberland and Fort Henry on the Tennessee, 
and against these the Union forces were now directed with 



1 General George H. Thomas was born in Virginia in 1816 and gradu- 
ated from West Point. His love for the Union was greater than his devotion 
to his native state. His commanding talents were of incomparable service to 
the Union cause. 



Till-: I'KKIOI) OF DISUNION 



369 



seventeen thousand men and seven gunboats. Grant and 
l'\x)te moved up the Tennessee and quickly caj)tured Fort 
Henry {February 6, 1862). The garrison escaped to Fort 
Donelson, where they were besieged by Grant and Commodore 
Foote. At daybreak, February 16, General Buckner asked for 
the terms of capitukition. 
(irant answered: "No 
terms except an uncon- 
ditional and inuncdiate 
surrender can be acceptcck 
I propose to move imme- 
diately upon your work^.'" ^ 
Buckner thereupon sur- 
rendered with fifteen thou- 
sand men."-^ As the Con- 
federate Una was now 
moved southward, Nash- 
ville was evacuated and 
practically all Tennessee 
was opened to the Fed- 
erals. Andrew Johnson 
was appointed military 
governor, and the North 
rejoiced in its first great 
victory in the Civil War. 

387. The Battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, April 6-7, 
1862. Grant now took his position on the Tennessee River at 
Pittsburg Landing, a few miles from Shiloh, to await reenforce- 
ments from Buell. Johnston, anxious to crush Grant before 
Buell should arrive, made a sudden attack at sunrise, Sunday, 
April 6. The Union soldiers, taken by complete surprise, were 




GEXER.AL U. S. GRANT 



1 It was from this answer that Cirant was afterwards called " Unconditional 
Surrender " (Irant. 

- " Judfijed by its moral and strategical results, the capture of Fort Donelson 
was one of the turning points of the war." — Ropes, " Civil War," Vol. II, p. 34 



370 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

driven back toward the river, losing three thousand prisoners. 
Johnston was killed, and Beauregard assumed command. On 
the following day the battle was renewed. Buell's fresh troops 
now began to arrive, and late in the afternoon the Confederates 
fell back to Corinth. The loss of life was great, over ten 
thousand men being killed and wounded on each side. On 
the same day as the battle of Shiloh the Union fleet on the 
Mississippi captured Island Number lo. Fort Pillow fell June 5, 
and the great river was opened as far south as Memphis. The 
Union fleet at once attacked and completely defeated the 
Confederate ironclads here, and Memphis fell June 6. With 
the 'fall of Memphis the Mississippi was open to Vicksburg. 

388. The Capture of New Orleans, April 25, 1862. In the 
meantime Farragut and Porter had been sent from Fort Monroe 
to capture New Orleans. This city, with its one hundred and 
seventy thousand inhabitants, its large workshops, and its com- 
manding position at the mouth of the Mississippi, was invalu- 
able to the South. It is about one hundred and ten miles from 
the Gulf and was defended by two strongly fortified posts. Fort 
Jackson and Fort St. Philip, about seventy-five miles below the 
city. Under heavy bombardment from his batteries Farragut 
fought his way through the obstructions across the river, 
passed the forts, and appeared (April 25, 1862) before the city 
of New Orleans, which surrendered. Farragut then sailed up 
to Baton Rouge and Natchez, both of which he captured. The 
only part of the Mississippi now held by the Confederates 
was the two-hundred-and-fifty-mile stretch between Vicksburg 
and Port Hudson. 

389. Battles of Perry ville and Murfreesboro. The Con- 
federates now determined to break through the besieging line 
and invade the North. In October General Bragg left Chatta- 
nooga and hurried across Tennessee and Kentucky, threatening 
Louisville. Buell pursued him, and at Perryville (October 8, 
1862) an indecisive battle was fought. Bragg retreated to 
Chattanooga, and Rosecrans superseded Buell. 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 37 1 

Grant had sent recnforcements to Buell, and the Confed- 
erates, thinking to overvvhehn Grant's left wing under Rosecrans, 
made an attack at luka (September 19) and at Corinth (Octo- 
ber 3-4). The Confederates were driven back. Rosecrans was 
now appointed commander of the Army of the Cumberland to 
replace Buell. At Murfreesboro (or Stone's River) (December 
31. 1S62, and January 2, 1863) Bragg and Rosecrans met, and 
a fearful battle ensued, Bragg retreated, and the last attempt 
to recover Kentucky had been made. 

390. The Railroads to the Pacific. While the war opera- 
tions were of the most vital importance during the year 1862, 
Congress passed two measures that were to have a most endur- 
ing effect on our history. The first of these measures was the 
charter for the Union Pacific and for the Central Pacific Rail- 
roads. Under this act sixty-five million dollars was advanced 
to the railroad corporations for the construction of the railways. 
In four years, from 1862 to 1866, Congress gave away to these 
and other Western railroad companies seventy-four million, six 
hundred thousand acres of land which belonged to the people 
of the United States. 

391. The Homestead Act. The second important measure 
was the famous Homestead Act of May 20, 1862. This is the 
greatest of our land laws. It gave free of charge, except for 
the slight cost of registering the land, a tract of one hurtdred 
and sixty acres of public land to any settler who would build a 
home and improve the land within a certain time. After five 
years of actual residence a patent was issued to the colonist, 
giving him the actual ownership of the land. Under the in- 
fluence of this act twenty-seven million acres were claimed in 
seven years, hundreds of thousands of settlers secured homes 
in the West and built up the territories and new states of 
that section. The act also drew to our shores in enormous 
numbers colonists from Europe who desired to secure homes 
here, four hundred and sixty thousand arriving in one year 
(1873). 



372 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



The Peninsular Campaign, under McClellan, failed of success. 
Pope was defeated in his efforts to reach Richmond. 

Lee attempted to invade the North and was repulsed at Antietam. 
Burnside was defeated at Fredericksburg. 

Battle between the Monitor and the Merrifnac. 

In the West the Confederates lost Kentucky and Tennessee. 

New Orleans fell. The entire Mississippi except between Vicks- 
burg and Port Hudson was now controlled by the Union fleet. Of 
the seaboard towns only Mobile, Charleston, and Wilmington, North 
Carolina, remained under the Confederate flag. 

Politico / action: (i) the charter for the Pacific Railroad was 
granted by Congress ; (2) the Homestead Act, the greatest of 
our land acts, was passed. 

The War in 1863 

392. The Emancipation Proclamation. When the war began, 
it was not the intention of Lincoln nor of the North to attack 
the institution of slavery. The purpose of the North was the 
preservation of the Union. As the war progressed, however, 
the antislavery feeling in the Northern states became stronger 
day by day. The slaves were very valuable to the South, as 
they raised the crops necessary for the support of those at 
home as well as the soldiers in the field. They were also 
used extensively in war operations, digging trenches and rais- 
ing fortifications. To destroy slavery, therefore,.- would greatly 
weaken the war strength of the South. There still remained 
the fear, also, that England might interfere in behalf of the 
South, her mills being closed for want of cotton, while tens 
of thousands of her operatives were almost starving. In con- 
sequence there was an increasing pressure upon the British 
government to intervene to break the blockade. This action 
would be favorable to the Confederacy. If slavery were now 
abolished, the issue would be very clearly drawn between the 
North, establishing freedom, and the South, maintaining slavery. 



THE PERIOD OK DISUNION 373 

England would therefore find it difficult to justify her course 
in aiding the cause of slavery after she herself had abolished 
the institution throughout her dominions.^ 

On September 22, 1862, President Lincoln issued a pre- 
liminary proclamation. As commander in chief of the armies 
he announced that as a "fit and necessary measure," if the 
seceded states did not return to the Union before January i, 
1863, "all persons held as slaves within any state . . . the 
people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United 
States shall be then, thenceforward and forever, free." The 
seceded states not having returned, the Emancipation Procla- 
mation was issued January i, 1863, declaring the slaves in all 
territory held by the Confederates to be free. The proclama- 
tion, however, could be carried into effect only as the conquest 
of the Confederacy advanced.^ 

393. The Battle of Chancellors ville, May 1-4, 1863. Soon 
after the defeat of the I'nion forces at P>edericksburg, Burn- 
side was removed and 1 looker assumed command of the Army 
of the Potomac. Both Northern and Southern armies went 
into winter quarters. In the spring Hooker led his forces 
against Lee and Jackson, who were posted at Chancellorsville, 
but he was defeated (May 1-4). The victory was a costly one 
for the Confederates, as Stonewall Jackson accidental!)- received 
a fatal wound from his own men. 

1 Beginning in 1861 there had been a series of acts of Congress leading up 
to the Emancipation Proclamation: (i) slaves of disloyal masters, if used 
in military operations, were confiscated (August 6, 1861); (2) officers of 
the army were forbidden to return fugitive slaves (March 13, 1S62) ; (3) slav- 
ery was abolished in the District of Columbia, payment being made to the 
owners (April 16, 1862); (4) slavery was prohibited in any of the territories 
of the United States (June 19, 1862); (5) all slaves of disloyal masters were 
confiscated whether used for military purposes or not (July 17, 1862). 

- It should be carefully noted that the Kmancipation Proclamation freed 
the slaves only in the seceded states or those parts of these states which had 
not been brought under Federal control. It did not affect the slaves in the 
loyal states nor in any territory controlled by the Federal armies, and it did not 
affect the institution of slavery. This was finally destroyed by the Thirteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution, enacted in 1865. 



374 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



394. Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. Confident now 
of victory, Lee hurried past Hooker, entered Maryland, and 
crossed the Hne into Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
and Washington were threatened,^ and the people of the North 
were thoroughly alarmed. Hooker now resigned from his com- 
mand, and Meade tooli charge of the army. The forces met 
at Gettysburg. Here a fertile valley is 
bordered by two parallel ridges that run 
north and south. The eastern, or Ceme- 
tery Ridge, was seized by the Union 
army, while the Confederates held the 
western, or Seminary Ridge. The first 
day's fighting was, on the whole, favor- 
able to the Confederates. The Federals, 
however, with ever-increasing new forces, 
gradually seized the best positions. On 
the third day (July 3) Lee decided to 
strike, if possible, a decisive blow. About 
midday he opened on the Federal lines a terrific cannonade and 
after an hour and a half ordered a charge of Pickett's brigade, 
upon the center of the Union line, which was under the com- 
mand of General Hancock. Onward across the open plain for 
a mile swept the gray column, while against them cannon and 
musket poured their deadly fire. Pickett's ranks were torn to 
pieces. Lee, seeing the hopelessness of trying to break the 
Union lines, now fell back and retreated across "the Potomac.^ 




BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 



1 On March 3, 1S63, the Conscription Act had been passed, which gave to 
the Federal government authority to draft men from any section of the Union 
into the army. Up to this time the various states had been asked to furnish 
their quota, and they carried it out as they saw fit. As sufficient men had not 
been obtained, the government decided to force men into the service by draft- 
ing them. Opposition to the draft resulted in riots in New York City (July 13- 
16, 1863), which were finally quelled by the Federal troops after considerable 
bloodshed and the destruction of millions of dollars' worth of property. 

^ To carry on the war President Lincoln had taken measures which it was 
maintained by many were contrary to the Constitution. To those in the North 
who opposed these measures was given the name " Copperheads." 



THE I'FRIOD OF DISI'NION 375 

395. The Fall of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. On the following 
day (July 4) an irreparable loss came to the Southern cause in 
the fall of Vicksburg. Up to this time Vicksburg and Port 
Hudson alone prevented Federal control of the Mississippi. 
Between these points the Red River entered the Mississippi, 
and through it the great states of Louisiana, l^xas, and 
Arkansas poured supplies into the Confederacy. Grant had 
determined to open the Mississippi, but Vicksburg was heavily 
fortified on a bluff two hundred feet above the river and w-as 
deemed impregnable. General Pemberton commanded the 
forces in defense of the town. Grant dropped down on the 
west side of the river and recrossed below Vicksburg. At Port 
Gibson he defeated the Southern forces (May i) and then 
hastened to head off General Joseph E. Johnston, who was 
marching to the aid of Vicksburg. The armies met at Jackson, 
Mississippi, and Johnston was defeated (May 14). Pemberton's 
forces were now besieged in Vicksburg. For seven weeks the 
besiegers shelled the doomed city. Cut off from food and 
ammunition, Pemberton at last surrendered (July 4). Port 
Hudson was now helpless and surrendered four days later. 
The Union forces now controlled the entire Mississippi River. 
Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas were virtually cut off from 
the Confederacy. The great supply of foodstuffs from these 
rich states now largely ceased, and necessar}' military supplies 
could no longer be brought from Mexico. 

396. Battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20. In the 
autumn of this year Rosecrans forced Bragg to abandon Chatta- 
nooga, Receiving reenforcements, however, under Longstreet, 
Buckner, and Johnston, Bragg turned on Rosecrans at the 
valley of the Chickamauga, where a fearful battle was fought 
September 19 and 20. The Confederates defeated the L^nion 
forces, driving the right wing from the field ; but the left, 
under General Thomas, from this day called the " Rock of 
Chickamauga," held its ground. The Union army was saved 
and fell back to Chattanooga. 



3/6 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

397. Battle of Chattanooga, November 24-25. Bragg, con- 
fident of victory, sent Longstreet against Burnside at Knox- 
ville, but lie was repulsed. Bragg now besieged Rosecrans in 
Chattanooga, taking his position on Missionary Ridge and 
Lookout Mountain, cutting off the Union source of supplies 
by destroying the railroad which connected Chattanooga with 
Nashville. The Federal army was in a most dangerous position. 
Rosecrans was now relieved of his command. Thomas was given 
charge of the Army of the Cumberland. General Grant was 
appointed to the command of all the armies west of the Alle- 
ghenies. Sherman's forces were brought from Memphis and 
Vicksburg. Hooker arrived with fresh troops from Virginia. 
The Union troops charged (November 24) the heights of 
Lookout Mountain, where Bragg's forces v/ere posted. The 
clouds had settled over the mountain, and hence the engage- 
ment is called the " Battle above the Clouds." The Confederate 
forces on Missionary Ridge were also attacked (November 25), 
the Federal soldiers sweeping up the heights and carrying all 
before them. Bragg was defeated and fell back to Dalton, 
Georgia, to protect, if possible, the city of Atlanta. Sheridan 
pursued him and captured thousands of prisoners as well as 
artillery and munitions of war. Joseph E. Johnston now assumed 
command of the Confederates in the West. 



The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by President Lincoln. 

The invasion of Virginia under Hooker was repelled (May 1-4, 1863) 
at Chancellorsville. 

Lee invaded the North and was defeated (July 1-3, 1863) at 
Gettysburg, one of the decisive battles of the war. 

Bragg defeated the Union army at Chickamauga, but was later 
routed by Grant at Chattanooga. 

Vicksburg fell, and the entire Mississippi passed into the hands 
of the Union forces. 



TIIK I'KRIOI) OI' DISUNION 



377 



Till'. War ix 1864 

398. Sherman takes Atlanta. Ihe Confederates had now 
only two large armies in the held, one under Lee in Virginia, 
the other under Johnston in Georgia. Grant was appointed 
lieutenant general in command of all the armies of the United 
States. Me now determined to push without ceasing the mili- 
tary operations. While he attacked Lee, Sherman was to attack 
Johnston, thereby preventing 
the two Confederate forces 
from uniting at any time to 
help each other. On May 6 
Sherman began his march. 
Johnston, who led the Con- 
federate forces, slowly fell 
back before him, burning 
bridges, fighting, and bear- 
ing off all the provisions. 
He met Sherman at Resaca, 
Dallas, and Kenesaw Moun- 
tain, but did not risk a gen- 
eral engagement. Sherman 
on advancing was compelled 
to leave parts of his army to 

guard his base of supplies from Nashville, three hundred miles 
away. Johnston's retreat was cleverly planned, but Jefferson 
Davis did not believe in the policy of constant retreat and 
removed Johnston, appointing Hood in his place. Hood at once 
attacked Sherman and was repulsed with heavy loss. Sherman 
swung around to the rear of Atlanta, and Hood was compelled 
to withdraw. Atlanta with its vast military stores fell into 
Sherman's hands (September 2). 

399. Admission of Nevada. Besides the military operations, 
other developments were taking place in our country. Nevada 
was admitted to the Union in 1864. 




(iKNKKAL W. 



378 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

In the same year a charter was granted to the Northern 
Pacific Railroad to build a line from Lake Superior to Puget 
Sound. The company was given forty-seven million acres of 
public land. 

400. The Battle of Franklin. Hoping to draw Sherman 
again into Tennessee, Hood marched northwestward. Sher- 
man followed for a short distance and then returned. Hood, 
however, pushed on and met a division of the Union army 
under Schofield at Franklin (November 30, 1864), where 
a stubbornly contested battle was fought. The Union army 
under Thomas was now intrenched at Nashville, where it was 
besieged by Hood. As soon as large reenforcements of new 
troops arrived, Thomas attacked and destroyed Hood's army 
(December 15-16, 1864). 

401. Sherman's March to the Sea. On November 15, 1864, 
Sherman started on his famous march to the sea, three hun- 
dred miles distant. The telegraph wires to the North had been 
cut and the depots and supplies of Atlanta burned. With 
sixty-two thousand veteran troops Sherman marched forward. 
His army swept through the country, cutting a swath sixty 
miles wide. Everything of use to the Confederacy was seized. 
Railroads were torn up, and the rails heated and bent ; bridges 
and public property were destroyed. There was no force to 
oppose the invading column, which early in December ap- 
proached Savannah. With the aid of the blockading fleet 
Sherman stormed Fort McAllister, which guarded Savannah, 
and Savannah fell. Sherman sent a telegram to President 
Lincoln (December 22, 1864), presenting ""as a Christmas 
gift the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy 
guns and plenty of ammunition." 

402. The Fate of the Alabama. Fall of Mobile. One of the 
vessels fitted out in England against the protests of the United 
States government was the Alabama. Handled with great skill 
by Captain Raphael Semmes, and being a swift vessel, she did 
enormous damage to Northern shipping, no less than sixty-three 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 379 

merchantmen falling into her hands. The United States war- 
ship Kcarsargc met her (June 19, 1864) off Cherbourg, France. 
In the battle that ensued the Alabama was sunk, her officers 
escaping on an English yacht. On August 5, 1864, Farragut, 
with his fleet of four monitors and twenty-one wooden ships, 
attacked the Confederate forts and warships in Mobile Bay. 
He compelled the forts to surrender, and destroyed the war- 
ships, thus closing the most important seaport still remaining 
open to the South. 

403. Grant attacks Lee. Battles of the Wilderness, May- 
June, 1864. Let us now see what Grant was doing in the 
North. According to the plan arranged with Sherman, Grant's 
force was to move against Richmond the same day that Sherman 
started towards the sea. Grant crossed the Rapidan (May 4) 
and entered a desolate region known as the " Wilderness," a 
tract of country covered with scrubby pines and thick under- 
growth (see map, p. 360). Here Lee attacked him. The fight- 
ing was incessant. In two months (May-June), in the battles of 
the Wilderness, Spottsylvania Court House, and Cold Harbor, 
Grant lost almost fifty-five thousand men. Lee's lines were 
still unbroken, however, and Grant abandoned the direct 
attack. He now marched his forces around Richmond, across 
the James, and attacked Petersburg. 

404. Sheridan defeats Early. In July General Jubal Early 
started with his cavalry to make an attack on Washington. 
He came within sight of the city and then turned into the 
Shenandoah Valley. Sheridan was sent to attack him. They 
met at Winchester (September 19), and Early was driven 
back. On October 19 Sheridan was in Winchester and heard 
the reverberation of heavy cannonading. Mounting his horse, 
he hurried to the scene of battle. He arrived just in time to 
rally his troops that had been surprised and routed by Early, 
who was now driven out of the valley. Grant ordered Sheridan 
to completely lay waste the Shenandoah Valley. Everything 
that could be of any use to the Confederates was gathered up 



38o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

or destroyed. It was as desolate as if a wave of flame had 
swept down the beautiful Valley. " If a crow wishes to fly 
down the Shenandoah Valley, he must carry his provisions with 
him," Sheridan is said to have remarked. 

405. Grant before Petersburg. In the meantime Grant was 
besieging Petersburg, twenty miles south of Richmond. Here 
Lee was intrenched with fifty-four thousand men. As a part of 
the defenses of Richmond, Petersburg was of the utmost impor- 
tance. Grant tried to storm it, but in vain. A mine was there- 
fore secretly dug under the Confederate fortifications. It was 
exploded (July 30), and the Federals, rushing forward to enter 
the city, were repulsed with fearful loss. Grant now fell upon the 
Weldon Railroad, by which supplies entered Richmond from the 
South. Fierce fighting ensued, but Grant held it firmly. 

406. Reelection of President Lincoln. In the fall of 1864 
the Republicans, joined by all in favor of prosecuting the war, 
renominated Abraham Lincoln for president on the Union 
ticket. Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, who had taken an 
active part in the reconstruction of that state for the Union, 
was nominated for vice president. The Democrats nominated 
General George B. McClellan for president. McClellan carried 
only the states of New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky. Eleven 
states that had seceded did not vote. Lincoln was reelected by 
a large majority of the electoral votes. 

SUMMARY 

Sherman drove Johnston before him, defeated Hood, and took 
Atlanta. He then began his march to the sea, capturing Savannah. 

Thomas defeated Hood's army before Nashville. 

Grant began his march through the Wilderness, fighting con- 
stantly, but gradually drawing in the lines around Richmond. 

The Alabama fought the Kearsarge off Cherbourg, and was 
destroyed. 

President Lincoln was reelected, with Andrew Johnson for 
vice president. 



THE PKRIOI) OF DISUNION 381 

Tine War in 1865 

407. Sherman marches Northward. One month after the 
capture of Savannah Sherman bc^an his northward march 
across the state of South Carohna. Columbia, the capital, fell 
into his hands and was burned. Charleston was abandoned, 
thus closing the last seaport to the South. 

Johnston had been again placed in command and tried to 
block Sherman's onward march. After entering the state of 
North Carolina Sherman met Johnston at Goldsboro. 

The end of the Confederacy was now at hand. The Fed- 
eral government held every seaport. Grant, Sherman, and 
Sheridan were drawing closer and closer to Richmond. The 
Union ranks were being filled up daily with fresh troops, 
while the Southern armies could not replace the men that 
had fallen. 

408. Fall of Richmond. Lee's Surrender, April 9, 1865. 
Sheridan had now come east from the Shenandoah Valley. He 
destroyed the canals and railroads that brought supplies to 
Lee's army. Lee in lengthening his line to defend his out- 
works weakened it to such an extent that Grant broke through 
the intrenchments. On April 2 Lee sent word to Jefferson 
Davis that Richmond and Petersburg must be abandoned, and on 
April 3 the Federal troops entered Richmond. Lee fled west- 
ward, hoping to join his forces with Johnston's, but Sheridan 
outmarched him and planted his troops across the route. Lee, 
seeing his position was hopeless, surrendered to General Grant 
his army of twenty-eight thousand men at Appomattox Court 
House (April 9). The most liberal terms of surrender were 
given. Lee was not asked to give up his sword, nor his men 
their horses. "They will need them for the spring plowing," 
remarked Grant. As Lee's soldiers were on the point of starva- 
tion, twenty-five thousand rations were issued to them. On 
April 26 Johnston surrendered to Sherman. Jefferson Davis, 
with his cabinet, fled southward on the fall of Richmond, but 



382 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

was captured (May lo) at Irwinville, Georgia. He was con- 
fined at Fort Monroe for two years and then released on bail. 
He was never afterwards disturbed. 

409. Cost of the War. Results of the War. It is probable 
that the war cost the country the lives of one million men. 
The debt of the nation rose to nearly three billion dollars, to 
which must be added the debts incurred by states and munici- 
palities, the amount paid for pensions, and the loss of property 
and wages. The war settled forever two great questions. The 
first was the slavery question, for the Thirteenth Amendment 
to the Constitution, adopted December, 1865, abolished slavery. 
The second great question was that of secession. No state 
thereafter can claim the right to secede from the Union. The 
war, frightful as was the cost, made us a nation, "an indestruct- 
ible Union composed of indestructible states." 

410. Assassination of President Lincoln. On March 4, 1865, 
President Lincoln was inaugurated for the second time. In 
his inaugural he hoped for peace, "with malice toward none, 
with charity for all." Peace soon came, but the joy of the 
nation at the return of peace was suddenly turned into mourn- 
ing. On the night of April 14, 1865, President Lincoln, while 
in his box at Fiord's Theater in Washington, was shot in the 
head by an actor named John Wilkes Booth. The assassin 
leaped from the box to the stage, shouting " Sic semper 
tyrannis ! "^ and although his leg was broken in jumping, he 
escaped to Virginia, where he was later shot in-a barn.^ Presi- 
dent Lincoln never regained consciousness after the fatal shot 
and died the next morning. Secretary Seward was stabbed 
while on a sick bed by a man who forced his way into the 
room. The wounds were not fatal, however. 

1 Sic sem/t-r tymiuiis (Ever thus to tyrants) is the motto of the state of 
Virginia. 

2 A court-martial sentenced four persons to death for assisting in the plot 
to assassinate the President, and they were later executed. 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 
CHART OF CIVIL WAR PERIOD 



383 



Secession of South Carolina (Dec. 20) 

Secession of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, 

Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina 
Kansas admitted (Jan. 29) 
Beginning of blockade 

Formation of the Confederate States of America (Feb. 4) 
Fall of Sumter (April 14) 

Battle of Bull Run. or Manassas Junction (July 21) 
Battle of Wilson's Creek (Aug. 10) 
Battle of Lexington, Mo. (Sept. 20) 
Tn'tii affair (Nov.) 

Fall of Fort Henry (Feb. 6) and Fort Donelson (Feb. 16) 
.)/<»;///(»;- and Mcrrinnic (March 9) 
Battle of Shiloh (April 6-7) 
Capture of Island Number 10 (April 7) 
Surrender of New Orleans (April 25) 
Homestead Act (May 20) 

.Seven days before Richmond (June26-July i) 
Second Battle of Bull Run (Aug. 30) 
Battle of Antietam (Sept. 17) 
Battle of luka (Sept. 19) 
Battle of Corinth (Oct. 3-4) 
liattle of Fredericksburg (Dec. 13) 
Battle of Murfreesboro (Dec. 31) 
Fmancipation Proclamation (Jan. i) 
Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2-3) 
West Virginia admitted (June 19) 
Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3) 
Surrender of Vicksburg (July 4) 
Port Hudson surrendered (July 8) 
Draft riots in New Vork City (July 13-16) 
Mississippi opened its entire length to Federals 
Battle of Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20) 
Battle of Chattanooga (Nov. 24-25) 

Grant made general in chief of United States armies (March 3) 
Battles of the Wilderness (May 4-June 3) 
Sherman begins march to sea (May) 
Alabama sunk (June 19) 
Farragut enters Mobile Bay (.Vug. 5) 
Capture of Atlanta (Sept. 2) 
Battle of Winchester (Sept. 19) 
Battle of Cedar Creek (Oct. 19) 
Nevada admitted to Union (Oct. 31) 
Battle of P'ranklin (Nov. 30) 
Battle of Nashville (Dec. 15-16) 
Fall of Savannah (Dec. 21) 
Capture of I'etersburg (.April 2) 
Fall of Richmond (.\pril 3) 
Surrender of Lee (.April 9) 
President Lincoln assassinated (.April 14) 
Johnston surrenders (.April 26) 



384 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. Copy the following and after each one write the name of the person 
to whom it refers : {a) the Father of His Country ; {d) the Great Pacifi- 
cator ; {c) the Sage of Monticello ; {d) the Expounder of the Constitution ; 
{e) Old Rough and Ready ; (/) Old Hickory ; {g) Poor Richard ; {Ji) Old 
Man Eloquent; (/) Honest Abe. 

2. Name : {a) the states of the Southern Confederacy ; {b) the slave 
states that did not secede. 

3. Name three important battles of the Civil War, and tell why each 
is important. 

4. Define or explain : {a) blockade runner ; (i^) contraband of war ; 
{c) draft; {d) Copperhead; {e) "Cotton is king"; (/) Trent affair. 

5. Why did not President Lincoln abolish slavery at the beginning 
of the Civil War.? 

6. Write on two of the following : (i^) geographic divisions of the area 
of the Southern Confederacy ; {b) the effect of the geographic divisions 
of the Confederacy on the campaigns of the Civil War;.(i-) why Virginia 
became the great battle ground of the Civil War. 

7. Mark on a map the following strategic points in the Civil War: 
Vicksburg, Chattanooga, Mobile, Richmond, Gettysburg, the Shenandoah 
Valley, Appomattox. 

8. Write on two of the following topics concerning the Civil War : 
{a) organization of the Confederate States ; {b) relative condition of Northern 
and Southern states as to readiness for war ; {c) effects of the blockade 
of the Southern ports ; {d) importance of Sherman's march to the sea. 

9. Describe the following causes leading to the Civil War : {a) fugitive- 
slave law ; {b) Dred Scott decision ; {c) complaints of the South ; {d) com- 
plaints of the North ; [e) the Free-Soil party. 

10. Name three noted Union generals and three Confederate generals. 
Mention a battle in which each was engaged. 

11. What two great questions were settled by the Civil War? What 
effect has the settlement of these questions had on the growth and pros- 
perity of this country? 

READINGS 

Histories. Baffles and Leaders of the Civil I Var (Century Company). 
Chadwick, F. E., Causes of fhe Civil U^ar. Davis, Jefferson, 7?ise 
and Fall of the Confederate Government. Davis, V. ]., fefferson Davis. 
Grant, U. S., Memoirs. Henderson, G. F. R., Stonewall fackson 



THE PERIOD OF DISUNION 385 

and the American Civil War. Hosmi:r, j. K., T/ie Appeal to Anns. 
Outcome of the Civil liar. Lee, Fitzhlkjh, General Lee. Rhodes, J. P., 
United States, Vols. Ill and IV. Schwab, J. C, Confederate States of 
America. Sheridan, P. H., Personal Memoirs. Shekmax, W. T., 
Memoirs. Stephens, A. H., War between the .States. Wh.so.n, 
WooDROW, Division and Reunion. Wise, J. S., End of an Era. 

Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, Vol. IV, p. 2i6(Fall of Sumter); p. 221 
(Rising of the People); p. 244 (Home Life of the South); p. 280 (Horrors 
of War); p. 330 [Monitor and M err i mac); p. 372 (Pickett's Charge at 
Gettysburg); p. 376 (The Draft Riots); p. 416 (End of the Alabama); 
p. 440 (Surrender of Lee). Muzzey, Readings, p. 41 4 (The 7>w// Affair) ; 
p. 421 (Pen Pictures of the War); p. 445 (Tributes to Lincoln). 

Fiction. Bachellek, I. A., Ebcn Holden (New York during the war). 
Bryant, W. C, Our Country's Call (poem). Cable, G. W., The Cavalier 
(the war from a Southern viewpoint). Churchill, W., The Crisis (the 
causes of the Civil War). Cooke, J. E., Hilt to Hilt. Mohun. Wearing 
of the Gray. (Civil War stories.) Eggleston, G. C, The Master of War- 
lock (early days of the war in Virginia). Johnston, Mary, The Lotig Roll 
(a tale of Stonewall Jackson). Mitchell, S. W., In War Time. Roland 
Blake. (Civil War stories.) Page, T. N., The Burial of the Guns and 
Other Stories (the South before and after the war). Ryan, A., The Sword 
of Robert Lee (an excellent poem on the great Southern leader). Randall, 
Ma7yland (a stirring poem on the invasion of the author's state by 
Northern troops). Re.a.d, T. B., Sheridan's Ride (a poem on the famous 
ride. Spirited, but said to be incorrect as to the facts). Whit.man, W., 
O Captain, my Captain (a poem on the death of Lincoln). Whittier, J. G., 
Barbara Frietchie (a poem which introduces Stonewall Jackson). 



CHAPTER XIII 

" The development of the original thirteen states into the present Union, 
extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Mexico to Canada, 
remains one of the most marvelous achievements of human history." 

THE PERIOD OF REUNION 

Andrew Johnson's Administration, i 865-1869 

411. Accession of Andrew Johnson. Review of the Troops. 
On the death of President Lincohi, Andrew Johnson^ took the 
oath of office as president of the United States. On May 23-24 
the armies of Grant and Sherman, a column thirty miles 
long, were reviewed by President Johnson and his cabinet. 
These soldiers, to the number of almost one million, at once 
returned to the quiet pursuits of civil life. 

An amnesty proclamation was issued by President Johnson 
(May 29, 1865), offering pardon to all former Confederates, 
except certain classes, on condition of their taking an oath to 
support the Constitution of the United States and to abide by 
the laws and proclamations made regarding slaves. 

412. The Thirteenth Amendment. The Emancipation Procla- 
mation of January i, 1863, had declared the slaves to be free 
in such parts of the country as were in the control of the Con- 
federates and had not been recovered by the Union forces. 

1 Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808. He was too poor 
to receive an education and became a tailor. His wife, however, instructed 
him, and he rose gradually to distinction. He was elected congressman in 1843 
and ten years later governor of Tennessee. He was United States senator 
and opposed secession so strongly that he was appointed military governor of 
his adopted state in 1862. He was elected vice president in 1864 and suc- 
ceeded to the presidency on the death of President Lincoln. In 1875 he was 
elected United States senator. He died July 31, 1875. 
386 



THE PERIOD OF REUNION 



387 



It did not, however, destroy slavery, and slaves could again be 
purchased. Moreover, some of the slave states had never left 
the Union, ^ and hence the proclamation did not apply to 
them at all. To abolish slavery everywhere in the Union, the 
Thirteenth Amendment was adopted December 18, 1865. 

413. Civil War in Mexico. While these vital questions were 
occupying the people of the United States, Mexico was in 
the throes of civil war. Napo- 
leon III of France thought to 
take advantage of this condition 
and to seize Mexico while the 
United States was occupied with 
the Civil War. French armies 
landed and overran Mexico. In 
1864 the French set up Maxi- 
milian, an Austrian prince, as 
emperor. Our government pro- 
tested against this act as a viola- 
tion of the Monroe Doctrine, 
and after the end of the Civil 
War General Sheridan was sent 
with fifty thousand troops to the 
Mexican border. The French 
armies were at once withdrawn, 

and Maximilian fell into the hands of the Mexicans and was 
shot ( 1 867). The Mexican Republic was thereupon reestablished. 

414. Condition of the South. The South was at this time 
in a most demoralized condition. War had spread ruin far 
and wide ; there were practically no state governments, nor 
revenue collectors, nor courts, and no mail service. President 
Johnson sought to bring order out of chaos by establishing at 
once all the I'ederal offices and courts. He also raised the 
blockade from the Southern ports. The gravest question that 
faced him was that of reconstruction. 

^ Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. 




ANDREW JOHNSON 



388 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

415. Plans for Reconstruction. President Lincoln had main- 
tained that none of the states had legally left the Union. He 
was ready to receive them back into the Union if even a 
small number of loyal citizens should form state govern- 
ments, and on this basis Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana 
were recognized by President Lincoln. President Johnson on 
taking office sought to follow in general President Lincoln's 
plan. Believing the power of reconstructing the states rested 
in the president rather than in Congress, President Johnson 
appointed a governor over each of the seceded states and 
allowed a convention to be called in each state. These con- 
ventions repealed the ordinances of secession and agreed never 
to pay the debt contracted by the Confederacy. They also 
abolished slavery and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment. 
State officers and senators and representatives to Congress 
were elected. 

416. The Civil Rights Act, April 9, 1866. When Congress 
assembled in December, 1865, it refused to recognize President 
Johnson's plan of reconstruction, as it claimed that it alone had 
power to reconstruct the states. It denied admission to the 
representatives and senators that had been elected by the re- 
constructed states of the South. Congress insisted that the 
seceded states should not be allowed to return to the Union 
until the negro had been secured in his rights. What led 
Congress to this view was the fact that certain Southern states 
had passed labor laws which Congress feared would allow the 
negro to be placed in practical slavery again. By the new state 
constitutions of the South it was provided that only white men 
could vote or hold office. Congress passed therefore the Civil 
Rights Act, which gave to the negro the rights of a citizen of 
the United States with military protection for those rights. It 
also gave him authority to sue in the P'ederal courts. The act, 
however, did not make him a citizen of any state, nor did it 
give him the right to vote. President Johnson believed the 
South would deal fairly with the "freedmen," as the negroes 



THE PERIOD OF REUNION 389 

were now called, and vetoed the act. It was passed over his 
veto and became a law (April 9, 1866). Congress and the 
President were now in open antagonism. 

417. The Fourteenth Amendment. To make permanent in 
the national Constitution the provisions of the Civil Rights Act, 
Congress proposed (June, 1866) the Fourteenth Amendment. 
This amendment gave citizenship to the negro; forbade, except 
under certain conditions, the Confederate leaders to hold office; 
guaranteed the validity of the debt of the United States and 
forbade the payment of the debts of the Confederacy ; and 
provided that the refusal of any state to grant the franchise to 
any of its citizens would result in cutting down its representa- 
tion in Congress. This amendment was ratified in 1868. 

418. The Freedmen's Bureau Act. Congress now passed the 
Second Freedmen's Bureau Act, as the first had expired by 
limitation. This act gave military protection to the negroes, 
and to the whites of the South who had opposed secession. 
The act planned to place the freed negroes on the abandoned 
or confiscated lands of the South and to provide for a limited 
amount of education. The President vetoed the bill and it was 
passed over his veto (July 16, 1866). 

419. The Reconstruction Acts, 1867. The strife between 
the President and Congress rapidly became very bitter. As 
the Republican party had two thirds majority of each house of 
Congress, it could enact legislation regardless of the President's 
wishes. In 1867 it passed the Reconstruction Acts over the 
President's veto. These acts provided for the military govern- 
ment of the ten seceded states, including even Louisiana and 
Arkansas, which had been reconstructed by President Lincoln 
and President Johnson. As Tennessee had complied with the 
requirements of Congress, it had been readmitted (1866) to the 
Union. Fach of the seceded states was now compelled to make 
a new constitution. It was required that this constitution should 
grant the right to vote to the negro, should repudiate the Con- 
federate debt, should acknowledge the validity of the L^nion 



390 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

debt, should renounce all claims for the emancipation of the 
slaves, and should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. At first 
all the Southern states rejected this amendment, but finally 
North and South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and 
Arkansas accepted these terms and were readmitted (i868),i 
Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia refused to accept these 
terms, but, with Georgia, they did so in 1870, and were 
thereupon admitted. 

420. The Carpetbaggers. Ku-Klux Klan. In the unsettled 
conditions in many of these states unprincipled men from the 
North joined with the illiterate negro voters and secured con- 
trol of political affairs, setting up in many cases governments 
that were a disgrace to republican institutions. Enormous 
debts were contracted, and money was spent lavishly and cor- 
ruptly. Many of these men came to the South with practically 
nothing except a valise, or carpetbag as it was called. Hence 
the name "carpetbaggers" was applied to them. The Southern 
whites who aided or sympathized with the carpetbaggers were 
called "" scalawags." 

To overcome the negro rule a secret society was formed 
called the Ku-Klux Klan. By making use of the negro's in- 
stinctive fear of ghosts the Klan, dressed in white, at times with 
hideous masks, moved by night silently from place to place, using 
if necessary the harshest measures to strike terror into the negro. 

421, The Tenure of Office Act. To decrease the power of 
the President Congress now passed the Tenure -of Office Act. 
As the consent of the Senate was necessary for the appoint- 
ment of certain officials, this act required the same consent 
for their removal. President Johnson declared the act to be 
unconstitutional and vetoed it, but it was repassed over his 
veto. Later, disregarding the Tenure of Office Act, President 
Johnson removed Stanton, Secretary of War, whom he cor- 
dially disliked. The Senate refused its consent to the removal, 
but the President would not reinstate Stanton. 

1 In 1867 Nebraska had been admitted to the Union as the thirty-seventh state. 



THE PERIOD OF REUNION 391 

422. Impeachment of President Johnson. Congress was now 
under the control of 'riiadclcus Stevens and the Radicals ^ and 
consequently impeached Johnson, in I'Y'bruary, 1868, of "high 
crimes and misdemeanors." The trial lasted from March to 
May and was exceedingly bitter. Although the Republicans 
had more than two-thirds majority in the Senate, seven Repub- 
licans joined with twelve Democrats and refused to vote for 
the conviction of the President. He was acquitted by one vote. 




SI l-.M-: IX ALASKA 

On Christmas Day, 1868, full pardon and amnesty was 
extended to all who had participated in the war against 
the Union. 

423. Atlantic Telegraph Cable. The telegraph laid under 
the Atlantic in 1858 failed after a few hundred messages had 
been sent. Another cable, laid in 1865, parted in mid ocean. 
Cyrus W. Field, who was the prime mover in these enter- 
prises, organized another company and successfully laid a 
cable (1866). The Great Eastern, a mammoth steamship, was 
used for the purpose. Since that time a dozen cables have 

1 Besides Stevens the leading Radicals were Butler, Cameron, Wade, 
Henry Wiijter Davis. Svjmner, and Chandler. 



392 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

been laid to Europe. The completion of the first cable was the 
cause of great rejoicings as the news of great world events 
were instantly recorded in both hemispheres instead of requiring 
weeks as formerly. In 1903 a cable was completed to Manila. 
Here it met the Asiatic cable, and for the first time a message 
could be flashed entirely around the earth. 

424. Purchase of Alaska, 1867. In 1867 the Russian govern- 
ment sold Alaska to the United States for seven million, two 
hundred thousand dollars. The purchase was made to secure as 
much of North America as possible for our domain, to remove 
one more monarchical government from the New World, and 
to show our feeling of gratitude to Russia for her friendliness 
to the Union cause during the war. About five hundred and 
ninety thousand square miles were added to our domain. Alaska 
is rich in furs, especially of the seal, and in timber and gold. 
It has already yielded hundreds of millions of dollars' worth 
of products. 

In the presidential election of 1868 the Republicans nomi- 
nated General U. S. Grant for president and Schuyler Colfax 
for vice president. The Democrats' nominated Horatio Seymour, 
governor of New York, for president. Grant and Colfax were 
elected. 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of Johnson's administration (1865-1869) were : 

The violent quarrel between Congress and the President. 

Adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 and the Fourteenth 
Amendment in 1868. 

Passage of the Civil Rights Act (1866), the Freedmen's Bureau 
Act (1866), the Reconstruction Acts (1867), and the Tenure of Office 
Act (1867). 

The assertion of the Monroe Doctrine in regard to Mexico. 

Impeachment of the President and his acquittal (1868). 

Laying of the Atlantic cable in 1866. 

Purchase of Alaska in 1867. 

Proclamation of general amnesty in 1868. 



THE PERIOD OF REUNION 393 

Grant's Admixistkatioxs/ 1869-1877 

425. The Alabama Claims. The United States, as early as 
1863, took up with luigland the Alabama question and con- 
tended that England should pay heavy damages for allow- 
ing the Alabama and other cruisers to be built or fitted out 
in English ports. After years of discussion the matter was 
referred to a commission. 

426. Settlement of Difficulties. This commission met at 
Washington and concluded a treaty (May 8, 1871). It was 
decided to settle not only the Alabama claims but also disputes 
regarding the Newfoundland fisheries and the boundary be- 
tween the United States and Canada at Puget Sound. As a 
result of this action England was required to pay to the United 
States fifteen million, five hundred thousand dollars for damages 
caused by the Alabama and other cruisers. The fisheries dis- 
pute was settled by the payment by the United States of five 
million, five hundred thousand dollars for the privilege of fish- 
ing on Canadian shores for twelve years. The boundary matter 
was settled in favor of the United States, which secured the 
islands lying between the continent and Vancouver Island. 

The truly great result of this Alabama question, however, 
was the fact that it was a forward step in the appeal to arbi- 
tration instead of to war for the settlement of differences 
between nations. 

427. Civil-Service Reform. The first bill for the reform of 
the civil service became a law in March, 1871. This led to the 
appointment of a commission to put the law into force. An im- 
portant step was thus taken toward securing the appointment of 
worthy men to office through competitive examinations rather 

1 General Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio in 1822. In 1843 he grad- 
uated from West Point and later served in the Mexican War. In the Civil 
War he rose to be general in chief of the armies of the United States. 
He was elected president in 1868 and was reelected in 1S72. His friends 
tried in vain to secure his nomination again for a third term in 1883. 
He died in 1885. 



394 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

than on the recommendation of a pohtical leader. Not until 
the Pendleton Civil-Service Act was passed (1883), however, 
did civil-service reform become an established policy of our 
government. 

428. The Transcontinental Railroad. Until four years after 
the close of the Civil War passage across the plains between 
the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains led along one of 
two routes : the Oregon trail by the Platte River valley, or the 
Sante Fe trail along the Arkansas River to the old town of 
Santa Fe. The former, or northern route, was taken by emi- 
grants intending to settle on the Pacific coast, especially in 
Oregon. The southern, or Santa Fe trail, was mainly a route 
of trade by which all the region from Santa Fe to old Mexico 
was supplied with goods from the Eastern states, and in return 
furs, buffalo skins, gold, and silver were brought to the Missis- 
sippi Valley. The Civil War had impressed strongly on the 
nation the necessity of some better means of communication 
between the East and the great West and California. Two 
companies were formed to build a railroad from the Missouri to 
the Pacific. The work was begun in 1865 at Omaha on the 
east and at Sacramento on the west. The great work was 
finished, and the train from the east met the train from the 
west (May 10, 1869) near Ogden, Utah. 

429. The Great Fires of Chicago and Boston. On Sunday 
evening, October 8, 1871, a fire broke out in the west division 
of Chicago and spread with fearful rapidity. It leaped across 
the Chicago River and until Tuesday morning swept all before 
it. More than seventeen thousand buildings were destroyed. 
Not only our nation but foreign countries sent relief to the 
people of the afflicted city. A little more than a year later 
(November 9, 1872) the business section of Boston was 
destroyed by fire. 

430. The Fifteenth Amendment. Reelection of Grant. The 
Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution made the negro a 
voter, as it provided that no law should be passed to prevent 



THK PERIOD OI' RKA^NION 395 

citizens from voting on account of race, color, or previous con- 
dition of servitude. Three fourths of the states having approved 
it, it was proclaimed March 30, 1870. In the following year 
all the states that had seceded were again in the Union, with 
representatives in both Houses of Congress. 

At the end of his first term of office President Grant was 
renominated and was elected, defeating Horace Greeley, who had 
been nominated by the Democrats and liberal Republicans.' 

431. An Era of Scandals. The Civil War and the careless 
and extravagant use of public money developed an era of be- 
trayal of trust by public officials. The city of New York was 
robbed of millions of dollars by the infamous Tweed and his 
associates, while the state of New York was despoiled by the 
Canal Ring, — tlic country thieves as distinct from the city 
thieves; government officials- planned with distillers in the 
West to defraud the United States of the revenues on whisky, 
no less than a million and a half of dollars being stolen in ten 
months by this Whisky Ring ; the company organized to build 
the Pacific railroad was shown to have secured legislation by 
bribery ; the Secretary of War, Belknap, was impeached for 
accepting bribes ; the Indian agents in the West robbed the 
Indians and were even aided in their rascalities by those in 
Washington who should have protected the Indians. It was a 
dark picture on the eve of the centennial of our independence. 

432. The Weather Bureau. The establishment (1870) of 
the Weather Bureau was one of the most important events of 
Grant's administration. This bureau established stations through- 
out the countrv and is able to forecast with considerable 



1 Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was elected vice president. Before the 
electoral vote was cast Horace Greeley died. 

'■^ Besides Belknap eighty-six officials under the national government were 
implicated in this corrupt affair, includingi Babcock, the President's private 
secretary. Bristow. the honest and brave .Secretary of the Treasury, exposed 
the ring. " The high-water mark of corruption in national affairs," says Rhodes, 
in "United States," Vol. VII, p. 191, "was reached during Grant's two 
administrations." 



396 ESSE:NTIALS of AMERICAN HISTORY 

accuracy the coming of storms, dangerous winds, cold waves, 
and heavy frosts. By means of signals vessels are warned 
when gales are expected. The warning that severe frosts and 
storms might be expected has saved to the farmers and to the 
shipping interests billions of dollars. Thousands of lives might 
have been lost at sea were it not for the warning signals 
displayed along the coast. 

433. The Crisis of 1873. The amazing growth of industries 
of all kinds after the Civil War and the success of the first 
transcontinental railway led to the building of railways in all 
parts of the Union far beyond the needs of the country. New 
enterprises largely on borrowed money were started every- 
where, although the great fires of Chicago and Boston had 
rendered necessary the gathering of hundreds of millions of 
dollars to build up those great marts of trade. Unfortunately 
just at this time of feverish speculation a prominent Philadel- 
phia banking house failed (September 18, 1873). At once a 
panic followed. Banks were compelled to suspend, the doors 
of factories were closed, workmen were thrown out of employ- 
ment, and widespread suffering ensued. The crisis lasted for 
at least five years and was probably the most severe financial 
depression in the history of our country. 

434. The Centennial Exposition. Admission of Colorado. 
In 1876 an international exposition was held in Fairmount 
Park, Philadelphia, in honor of the hundredth anniversary of 
our independence. About ten million people Visited the expo- 
sition. Colorado was admitted to the Union this year, and 
hence is called the "Centennial" state. 

435. The Indian Wars. In 1872 trouble arose with the 
Modoc Indians of southern Oregon, who had undoubtedly 
been defrauded by government agents. The Indians went on 
the warpath, and for a year war was waged in the Far West, 
until the Indian power \vas broken and these tribes were 
removed to Indian Territory. In 1876 trouble arose with 
Sioux (soo) Indians when miners rushed into their territory 



THE PERIOD OF REUNION 397 

on the discovery of gold in the Black Hills. The Sioux 
were asked to surrender some of their lands and to enter a 
new reservation. Their leader, Sitting Bull, refused and pre- 
pared for war. He was encamped on the Little Big Horn 
River. In an endeavor to surprise him General Custer sepa- 
rated himself with his regiment from the main body of the 
army and stole around to the rear of the Indian encampment. 
But the Indians, informed of his movements, suddenly attacked 
him with overwhelming force, and Custer and his entire com- 
mand of two hundred and sixty men perished. Sitting Bull 
retreated later into Canada and peace was secured. 

436. The Electoral Commission. At the close of Grant's 
administration the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes 
of Ohio for president, while the Democrats selected Samuel J. 
Tilden of New York. At the close of the polls Tilden was 
apparently elected by a large majority. The Republicans, how- 
ever, claimed to have carried certain Southern states, which, if 
true, would elect Hayes. The country was in a turmoil, and at last 
an electoral commission composed of five justices of the Supreme 
Court, five senators, and five representatives was appointed. Of 
the fifteen members eight were Republicans and seven Demo- 
crats, and by a party vote of eight to seven Hayes was declared 
elected. 

SUMMARY 
'i'he leading events of Grant's two administrations(i869-r877) were : 
The Alabama awards. 
First law for civil-service reform. 
Opening of the transcontinental railroad. 
, The great fires in Chicago and Boston. 
Adoption of the F""ifteenth Amendment. 
The scandals in national and municipal aft'airs. 
Establishment of the Weather Bureau. 
Crisis of 1873. 
Centennial Exposition. 
Indian wars. 
The electoral commission. 



398 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Hayes's Administration,^ i 877-1881 

437. Withdrawal of Federal Troops from the South. Labor 
Troubles. The war had now been finished for twelve years, 
and in most of the states of the South the Southern leaders 
had been able to regain control of the state governments. 
Federal troops, however, still remained. President Hayes 
believed no permanent peace could be secured in the South 
under such conditions, and he promptly ordered the removal of 
the troops. In the states of South Carolina and Louisiana the 
carpetbag governments fell with the withdrawal of the Federal 
forces, and the South was once more allowed to rule itself. 

Serious labor troubles arose at this time throughout the 
country among the employees of railroads, caused partly by 
the reduction of wages. Riots broke out in Chicago, St. Louis, 
and Pittsburgh, the railroad station and freight houses in the 
latter city being completely destroyed. The rioters controlled 
more than six thousand miles of railway. The state authorities 
of Maryland, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Illinois, believ- 
ing their force inadequate to quell the trouble, asked the Presi- 
dent for aid. The troops at last brought the turmoil to an 
end, but not until many lives had been lost and millions of 
dollars' worth of property destroyed. The loss in wages was 
also very great. The strike was unsuccessful. 

438. The Bell Telephone. Although for many years the 
sound of the human voice could be transmitted from one 
point to another by means of a wire or cord, it remained for 
this administration to see the idea put into practical use. At 
the Centennial Exposition a telephone was exhibited. In the 
following year (1877) a telephone line was put into use 

1 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822, and was admitted to the 
bar. At the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted and rose to the rank of 
major general. He represented his district in Congress, and was elected 
governor of Ohio. He was nominated by the Republicans in 1876 for presi- 
dent with Wilham A. Wheeler for vice president. Hayes and Wheeler were 
declared elected by the electoral commission. He died in 1893. 




DRIVING THE LAST SPIKE IN THE TKANSCUMINEM AL 
RAILROAD 



THE PKRIOl) OF REUNION 



399 



between Boston and Salem — a distance of sixteen miles — by 
Alexander Graham Bell. Another line, operated under the plans 
of Professor Gray, was erected between Chicago and Milwaukee, 
a distance of eighty-five miles. These tests showed the practical 
nature of the telephone, so that it spread rapidly and is now 
an essential part of our business and our social life. One may 
now speak with ease from New 
York to San Francisco. 

439. Invention and Develop- 
ment of the Electric Light. 
Although the electric-arc light 
had been produced by the 
famous English scientist Sir 
Humphry Davy a century ago, 
little use was made of the idea. 
In 1878 Charles F. Brush, an 
American electrical expert, pro- 
duced a method of electric-arc 
lighting which revolutionized 
the system of lighting by elec- 
tricity. The first regular public 
use of this wonderful invention 
was the lighting of the public 
square of Cleveland, Ohio, in 

1879. The arc light quickly spread throughout the world, lead- 
ing to the brilliant lighting of streets everywhere. Thomas A, 
Edison at the same time was at work on a smaller electric light 
which became the well-known incandescent lamp. 

American enterprise has developed to a marvelous extent the 
use of electricity. Trolley cars, trains, engines, and machinery 
of all kinds are driven by the electric motor. The use of elec- 
tricity in plating and electrotyping, in the making of alumi- 
num and carborundum, in the manufacture of chemicals, and in 
the developing of heat for heating and welding are but a few 
of the examples of the ever-widening field of electricity. 




ALEXAXDKK (iKAHA.M HELL 



400 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



440. The Eads Jetties. The mouth of the Mississippi was being 
gradually filled up by the vast amount of mud brought down b)' 
the river. The loss to commerce was assuming vast proportions 
when James B. Eads offered a plan to Congress. He proposed to 

build jetties or banks, through 
which the river would run 
with rapidity and by the force 
of its own current prevent the 
sand and mud in the water 
from settling and filling the 





EDISON AND TWO OF HIS 
INVENTIONS 

channel. Congress voted an appro- 
priation, and the plan was successfully 
carried out. Large ocean steamers 
now reach New Orleans with ease. 

441. Financial Legislation. From 1862 onward there was 
no gold or silver money in circulation. Paper money only 
was in use, and its value rose and fell from time to time. 
In 1873 Congress passed a law dropping the silver dollar ^ 



^ This was called the demonetization of silver ; that is, its withdrawal from 
use as money, as the United States would no longer coin silver dollars. The 
silver dollar was used in business, but would not be accepted in payment of 
customs duties, nor in payment of the public debt or the interest thereon. 
This act was called the " Crime of '73 " by the silver advocates. 



THE PERIOD OF REUNION 401 

from the coins to be minted and making gold the only stand- 
ard of the currency. The silver dollar at this time was worth 
more than gold.^ The discovery of large quantities of silver 
in the West at this time, however, produced so much silver 
that its price began to fall. The Western states, therefore, 
now demanded the recoinage of the silver dollar to use up the 
supply. Congress refused to grant this request. In 1875 
Congress passed an act declaring that on January i, 1879, 
the greenbacks or paper money issued during the Civil War 
would be redeemed in gold. This paper money had been 
worth much less than gold. This action caused the price of 
the greenbacks to rise to the value of gold. 

442. The Bland- Allison Act. A greater demand than ever 
now arose from the Western states for aid for the cause of 
silver. In 1878 Congress yielded and passed the Bland- 
Allison Act, which required the government to coin not less 
than two nor more than four million silver dollars per month. 
As the silver dollar was now worth considerably less than the 
gold dollar, President Hayes vetoed the bill, but 'it was passed 
over his veto (1878). The silver dollar became legal tender and, 
despite its lower metal value, would buy as much as a gold dollar. 

443. Resumption of Specie Payment. In 1875 Congress had 
voted to pay in gold all the obligations of the United States 
January i. 1879. On that day, therefore, Secretary of the 
Treasury Sherman was ready to pay all demands in gold. Few, 
however, desired gold w-hen it was worth no more than silver 
or greenbacks. On account of ease in carrying, paper money 
is preferred as a rule by the people when its value is certain to 
be the same as that of gold. Our national credit w^as now so 
secure that we were enabled to borrow money to pay off our 
debts at a much lower rate of interest, thus saving millions 
of dollars to our treasury. 

' The metal value of the silver dollar at this time was one dollar and 
two cents in gold. From this time on. however, there was a steady fall in 
the value of silver. 



402 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



At the close of Hayes's administration the RepubHcans nomi- 
nated James A. Garfield for president and Chester A. Arthur 
for vice president, while the Dfmocrats nominated General 
Winfield S. Hancock. Garfield and- Arthur were elected. 




LIXE OF THE FIRST TRAXSCOXTIXEXTAL RAILWAY 



SUMMARY 

The leading events of Hayes's administration (1877-1881) were: 

Withdrawal of the Federal troops from the South. 

Labor troubles in the West. 

Development of the telephone and electric lighting. 

Eads's jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi. 

Resumption of specie payments. 

Dates to he remembered : 

1 86 1. Commencement of the Civil War. 

1862. The Monitor and the Merrimac. 

1863. The Emancipation Proclamation; batde of Gettysburg; 
Fall of Vicksburg. 

1865. Surrender of General Lee: death of Lincoln; Thirteenth 
Amendment, abolishing slavery. 

1868. Fourteenth Amendment, defining citizenship. 
1870. Fifteenth Amendment, granting negro suffrage. 



THE PERIOD OF REUNION 403 

Important dates for reference : 
1867. Purchase of Alaska. 
i86g. Completion of Pacific railroad. 
1 87 6-187 7. Development of telephone and electric light. 



REVIEW EXAMTNATION 

1. Tell what was accomplished by each of the amendments to the 
Constitudon as a result of the Civil War. 

2. Relate the circumstances under which the United States first came 
into trade relations with Japan. 

3. On what charges was President Johnson impeached? What was 
the result of the trial ? How is impeachment of a president brought about, 
and by whom is the trial conducted.'' 

4. Arrange in order of dme the following: Missouri Compromise; 
Dred Scott decision; beginning of the Mexican War; Emancipation 
Proclamadon ; Fugitive Slave Law ; invention of the cotton gin. 

5. Each of the following pieces of literature refers to an important 
event in history ; name the event and give the author of the poem : 
{a) The Star-Spangled Banner ; (b) Barbara Frietchie ; (c) Paul Revere's 
Ride ; {d) O Captain ! My Captain ! (e) Batde Hymn of the Republic : 
(/) The Sword of Robert Lee. 

6. What is meant by the following terms: Ui) Ku-Klux Klan: i/m carpet- 
baggers ; (c) scalaw^ags. 

7. What was Johnson's plan of reconstruction.' Why did not Con- 
gress accept it? 

8. Give an account of each of the following: (it) the Adantic cable: 
{h) how Hayes became president. 

9. State the important provision of each of the following: (</) the 
Specie Circular of 1836; (/;) the Independent Treasury Act of 1846; 
{c) the Bland-Allison Act of 1878. 

10. Give an important fact connected with each of the following: 
(a) Samuel F. B. Morse ; (b) Alexander Graham Bell ; (<) Robert Fulton ; 
{d) Cyrus W. Field ; (e) Eli Whitney: (/) Elias Howe; {g) Cyrus McCormick. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 

Garfield's Administration (i88i); Arthur's 
Administration (i 881-188 5) 

444. Assassination of the President. President Garfield ^ 
had been in office scarcely four months when he was shot 
by Charles J. Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker. He died 
September 19, 1881, and the vice president at once assumed 
the office of president.^ 

445. Revision of the Tariff. Civil-Service Bill. During 
the war a high tariff had been placed on goods to secure the 
immense sums of money necessary for military purposes. As 
these expenditures had ceased, it was thought unwise by many 
to collect so much money beyond the necessities of the govern- 
ment. It was therefore proposed to reduce the tariff, and a 
commission was appointed which reported a bill that lowered 
somewhat the duties on foreign articles, but the bill was still 
highly protective. It became a law in 1883. 

Another bill was passed by Congress in 1883, called the 
Pendleton Civil-Service Act, which placed the civil service 
upon a firmer foundation. It was the real beginning of the 

1 James A. Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831. He became a teacher and 
studied law until the Civil War, when he entered the army and rose to the 
rank of major general. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 
1863 and in 18S0 was chosen United States senator, but never took his seat, 
as he was elected president. He was assassinated in 1881. 

2 Chester A. Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830, and became a lawyer. 
He was Collector of the Port of New York for seven years and in 18S0 was 
elected vice president. He became president on the death of President 
Garfield and served until March 4. 1885. He died in 1886. 

404 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DKVELOl'MEX T 405 

movement which has grown until, at the present time, almost 
all office-holders are secure from removal except for cause. 

446. The Chinese Exclusion Bill. The overcrowded popula- 
tion of the Asiatic seaboard of China looked with longing eyes 
to the fair fields of California and began to come in large 
numbers to that state. As a Chinese laborer worked for low 
wages and lived in a very frugal manner, the workingmen of 
the Pacific coast demanded a law to prevent Chinese from 
coming to our country. In response to this demand a law was 
passed in 1882 prohibiting the immigration of Chinese laborers 
for a period of ten years. This law has since been renewed 
from time to time and is still in force. 

447. The Brooklyn Bridge. In 1883 the Brooklyn sus- 
pension bridge, which spans the East River in New York 
City, was completed. The Brooklyn Bridge was the first of the 
series of beautiful bridges that now span the East River. Under 
the East and Hudson rivers subways have been built to connect 
Manhattan Island with Brooklyn, Long Island, and New Jersey. 

448. The Alien Contract Labor Law. Expositions in the 
South. Many corporations found it profitable to send agents 
abroad to hire foreign workmen to come to this country under 
contract at a low rate of wages. To prevent this growing evil 
the Alien Contract Labor Law was passed, forbidding the 
importation of such contract laborers. 

In 1 88 1 a Cotton Exposition was opened in Atlanta. 
Georgia, and in 1884 New Orleans invited the nations to a 
World's Exposition. The wonderful development which cot- 
ton had effected in the South was shown by the enormous 
exports of that staple.^ At the same time the coal fields and 
iron mines had given life to new manufacturing centers like 
Atlanta, Chattanooga, and Birmingham, building up the mar- 
velous '" New South." 

• In 1784 about one bale of cotton was exported from Charleston, South 
Carolina. At the present time the cotton crop of the United States varies 
from twelve to sixteen million bales of five hundred pounds each. 



406 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

449. The Democrats regain Power. In 1884 the Republicans 
nominated James G. Blaine for president, while the Democrats 
nominated Grover Cleveland. A large independent vote was 
cast for Cleveland by independent Republicans called " Mug- 
wumps," and he was elected. 



The leading events of the Garfield and the Arthur administrations 
(1881-1885) were: 

Tariff revision and Civil-Service Bill. 
Opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. 
Alien Contract Labor Law. 
Expositions in the South. 

Cleveland's Administration,^ i 885-1 889 

450. The Washington Monument and the Statue of Liberty. 
The monument to the memory of George Washington was 
begun at the national capital in 1848, and the work continued 
for eight years, when it ceased. In 1878 construction was 
resumed and it was finished in 1884. It rises over the city of 
Washington to a height of five hundred and fifty-five feet — 
the highest monument in the world. 

The French Republic, to show its kindly feeling toward the 
sister republic in America, presented (1886) to the United 
States a bronze Statue of Liberty. This statue, one hundred 
and fifty-one feet high, was made by the great sculptor 
Bartholdi. Congress gave Bedloe's Island, a military post in 
New York Harbor, as a site for the gift. 

451. Important Legislation. The Presidential Succession. 
The Electoral Count. Interstate Commerce. From 1792 the 
succession to the presidency in case of the death of the 

1 Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. He studied law and was 
elected mayor of Buffalo in 1881. In 1882 he became governor of New York. 
He was elected president in 1884, was defeated for reelection in 1888 and was 
again elected in 1892. He died in 1908. 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 407 

president and vice president would pass to the president of 
the Senate, and on his death to the speaker of the House of 
Representatives. By the new law, passed in 1886, the suc- 
cession passes to the members of the cabinet in the order in 
which the departments were established. The chief reasons 
for the passage of this law were : first, the desire for the con- 
tinuity in the presidential office of the party that had elected 
the president, and second, the necessity of preventing the pos- 
sibility of the country's being without a head. (See p. 428, note.) 

To prevent a repetition of the troubles caused by the 
disputed election returns of 1876, a bill was passed providing 
for the counting of electoral votes. By this bill all votes are 
legal to which both houses of Congress agree ; in a disagree- 
ment of the houses those votes shall be counted which are 
certified by the governor of the state from which the disputed 
electoral votes come. 

A third Taw was the passage (1887) of the Interstate 
Commerce Act establishing a commission to secure uniform 
passenger and freight rates on the railroads between states. 

452. Tariff Discussion. Presidential Election. The United 
States government at this time was receiving from tariff taxa- 
tion over one hundred million more dollars each year than it 
needed to pay its debts. President Cleveland recommended 
that the tariff be reduced, and this became the leading issue 
in the next (1888) presidential campaign. The Democrats 
renominated Cleveland for president. The Republicans nomi- 
nated Benjamin Harrison, senator from Indiana, for president, 
and he was elected. 



The leading events of Cleveland's administration ( 1S85-18S9 ) were : 
Dedication of the Washington Monument and Statue of Liberty. 
Important legislation regulating (a) the presidential succession ; 
(/?) the electoral count; (<■) interstate commerce. 
The tariff discussion. 



4o8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Harkisom's Administration/ i 889-1 893 

453. Admission of New States. In 1888 Congress bought 
from the Creek and Seminole Indians a tract of land, about 
forty thousand square miles in area, which formerly was a 
part of Indian Territory. This tract was thrown open to 
settlement April 22, 1889. At noon of that day tens of thou- 
sands were waiting in the line for the bugle blast which an- 
nounced the opening. Thereupon a wild rush took place for 
farms. Towns sprang up on all sides, and in five years there 
were a quarter of a million of inhabitants where formerly the 
prairie stretched with a few cattle grazing upon it. The terri- 
tories of the West were anxious to reach the dignity of statehood, 
and in 1889 North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and 
Washington were admitted to the Union. In the following 
year Idaho and Wyoming were admitted, and in 1896 Utah 
was added to the sisterhood of states. 

454. The Pan-American Congress. The New Tariff Bill. 
A congress, called the Pan-American,^ was held in Washington 
in the autumn of 1889. It was composed of delegates from 
the Central and South, American republics. The congress was 
called to establish peace relations and business intercourse be- 
tween the republics of the New World, and resulted in the 
promotion of a closer political and commercial union between 
the American peoples. 

The defeat of the Democrats resulted in the Republicans' 
gaining control of the presidency, the Senate, and the House 
of Representatives. They soon (October i, 1890) passed a law, , 
named the McKinley Tariff Act, which materially increased 

1 Benjamin Harrison, a grandson of President William Henry Harrison, 
was born in Ohio in 1S33. ^^ studied law, and at the outbreak of the Civil 
War entered the army, leaving at the close of hostilities with the rank of 
brigadier general of volunteers. He was later elected (1880) United States 
senator from Indiana. He was elected president in 1888 and was defeated 
for reelection to the presidency in 1892. He died March 13, 1901. 

2 Pan is a Greek word, meaning " all." 



I'lIK TKRIOl) OV IXDISTRIAL I )KVKI,(~)l'Mi;.\r 



409 



the duties in some cases, took off many articles from the free 
Hst, and added a few to it. It provided for reciprocity or the 
reduction of duties to countries which granted a similar favor 
to the United States. 

455. The Sherman Silver Act. A new financial law, called 
the Sherman Act, was passed in i.Scjo. It amended the Bland- 
Allison Act of 1S7S. The new law provided that the Secretarv 




PAN-AMERICAX UNION IN WASHINGTON 



of the Treasury should buy four and a half million ounces of 
silver each month if that amount were offered. Payment was 
to be made in treasury notes that would be legal tender. This 
silver was not to be coined into dollars until it was needed to 
redeem any treasury notes that might be presented. 

456. The Anti-Trust Act. This period witnessed the devel- 
opment of large combinations of capital called trusts. Railroads 
were united into single large systems ; small business houses 
were joined together into large corporations, especially in oil, 
sugar, steel, and tobacco. On every hand the work of combin- 
ing all business in the hands of a few men was going on, lead- 
ing, it was feared, to monopoly and placing of dangerous power 



4IO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

in the hands of a few. To remedy this condition Congress 
passed (1890) the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to punish any 
attempts in restraint of trade. 

457. Development of the Labor Unions. While capital was 
bringing about the combinations called trusts, labor was suc- 
cessfully combining its members into unions. The Knights of 
Labor joined in one organization a million members. Later the 
American Federation of Labor united the workers in nearly 
all branches of industry. The labor unions were formed to 
better the condition of the laborer by securing for him higher 
wages and shorter hours. At times better accommodations for 
the workers were demanded. A refusal to grant the requests 
of the unions led frequently to a " strike," when all the workers 
ceased to labor and walked out. The strike at times led to the 
" boycott," which meant the refusal to have anything to do with 
"unfair" goods, as the products of manufacturing establish- 
ments opposed to the unions were called. Fortunately arbitra- 
tion has settled without great difficulty most of the problems 
connected with union labor. 

458. The Homestead Strike. In the summer of 1892 a 
serious labor trouble arose at the Carnegie steel works at 
Homestead, Pennsylvania. A band of armed Pinkerton detec- 
tives was sent to the works, but was fired on by the strikers 
and compelled to return. After weeks of the bitterest feel- 
ing the strike ended. It had a very important bearing on the 
country, for in the next presidential election .it undoubtedly 
turned thousands of laboring men from the Republican party, 
which was identified with high tariff protection, to the Demo- 
cratic party. 

459. Establishment of the Catholic University. A very im- 
portant step in the promotion of higher education in America 
was the establishment, in 1889, of the Catholic University of 
America at Washington. Courses in theology, law, philosophy, 
letters, science, and education are given. With the institutions 
grouped around it and the affiliated colleges throughout the 



THE PERIOD OF- IXDl'S TRI \L DEVKLOPMKXT 41 1 

country, the Catholic University lias become a great center of 
learning for the laity, the diocesan clergy, and the religious orders. 




-TKI'S IN TKANSCONTINKNTAI, TKANSI'OKTATK )N 



460. The Granger Movement. The farmers, particularly in 
the West, began to organize as early as 1867 to secure 
better treatment by the railroads in the matter of rates. They 
were also trying to make farming more profitable and more 
comfortable. Under the name of Grangers, or I'atrons of 



412 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Husbandry, they enrolled one hundred and fifty members in 
their organization. In 1873 the Farmers' Alliance was formed 
in the state of New York and spread rapidly. One of its 
purposes was to secure for the farmer more consideration in 
national legislation. 

In 1889 the Grangers formed at St. Louis the Farmers' 
Alliance and Industrial Union, and in the following year they 
entered the campaign for congressmen and elected several 
members to the national House of Representatives. The 
Alliance joined with the Labor party and formed for the next 
presidential campaign the People's party. Besides their politi- 
cal activities they aided each other by erecting cooperative 
warehouses, elevators, arvd stores, and arranging clubs and 
reading rooms for the benefit of the members. 

461. Second Election of Cleveland. In the presidential cam- 
paign of 1892 the Republicans renominated President Harrison. 
The Democrats chose former President Cleveland as their 
candidate. The Populist, or People's, party, which was made 
up of the Farmers' Alliance, the Labor party, and various 
industrial organizations, nominated General James B. Weaver 
for president. Mr. Cleveland was elected, with Adlai E. 
Stevenson as vice president. The electoral vote was 277 for 
Cleveland, 145 for Harrison, and 22 for Weaver. It was 
the first time in thirty-two years that any third- party had 
secured an electoral vote. 



The leading events of Harrison's administration (1889-1893) were: 

The admission of new states. 

The Pan-American Congress. 

The McKinley Tariff Bill. 

The Sherman Act. 

The Homestead Strike. 

Establishment of the Catholic University. 

The Granger Movement. 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 413 
Cleveland's Second Adminlstration, 1893- 1897 

462. The Wilson Tariff. The Columbian Exposition. The 

Democrats, believing that the result of the elections indicated a 
desire on the part of the people for lower tariff duties, passed 
the Wilson Tariff Act, lowering many duties and putting on 
the free list much raw material used in manufactures. 

To commemorate suitably the four hundredth anniversary 
of the discovery of America by Columbus, a World's Fair 
was held in Chicago. It was opened by President Cleveland 
and by the Duke of Veragua, who was a lineal descendant of 
Columbus. 

463. Hawaii. At the outset of President Cleveland's second 
administration he was met by the problem of Hawaii. The 
Hawaiian Islands were discovered by Captain Cook, an Eng- 
lishman, in 1778. They are nearly halfway across the Pacific 
and are a very important stopping-place for vessels on the 
way to Australia, the Orient, and the Philippines. The islands 
were ruled by native kings until January 14, 1893, when a 
revolution was begun in Hawaii to overthrow the monarchy. 
By the aid of the United States Minister and of marines from 
the United States cruiser Boston the revolution was successful. 
A provisional government was organized, which drew up a 
treaty of annexation with the United States. This treaty was 
sent to the Senate (February 15, 1893) by President Harrison, 
but was not acted upon before President Cleveland took his 
seat. He asked at once to have the treaty withdrawn that it 
might be further examined. 

On July 4, 1894, the Republic of Hawaii was established 
and was recognized by President Cleveland. Four years later, 
during the Spanish War, Hawaii was annexed to the L^nited 
States and became the Territory of Hawaii. 

464. The Bering Sea Controversy, 1893. One of the most 
valuable possessions of Alaska is the seal fisheries. The 
I'nited States claimed that the purchase of Alaska had given 



414 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

her the right to control the fisheries of Bering Sea. She seized 
numbers of British vessels. England denied the claims of the 
United States and maintained the right to hunt for seals three 
miles and more from the shore. The dispute was referred in 
1893 to a commission, which decided that Great Britain was 
right as to the question of taking seals outside the three-mile 
limit. The United States paid, therefore, for British vessels 
that had been seized. The commission provided at the same 
time, however, for the future protection of the seals. 

465. The Venezuela Question, 1895. A little later (1895) a 
dispute arose in South America over the boundary between 
Venezuela and British Guiana. Venezuela believed that Great 
Britain was trying to deprive her of territory that belonged to 
her. Venezuela appealed to the United States for protection 
against her powerful neighbor. President Cleveland, seeing 
that Great Britain showed no disposition to arbitrate the mat- 
ter, believed the Monroe Doctrine should protect the weaker 
state. In a special message (December 17, 1895) he asked 
Congress to give him power to appoint a commission to find 
the real facts in the case and to establish the true boundar)^ 
line. Congress so voted, and Great Britain soon afterwards 
arbitrated the question. 

466. The Crisis of 1893. Repeal of the Sherman Silver Act. 
In 1890 there began a business depression in Europe which 
would have had an immediate effect on the United States had 
not the crops, to a certain extent, failed in the countries of 
Europe. This caused a large export of food products from the 
United States. Soon, however, European nations were com- 
pelled to withdraw the money which they had invested in the 
United States. At this very time also the silver and tariff 
questions were agitating the country. To add to the problems 
of the times, the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company 
failed (1893) through gross mismanagement, and the failure 
of the National Cordage Company soon followed. As a result 
President Cleveland had hardly taken his seat when a crisis 



■mi". I'KRIOI) C)l" IXDIS TRIAL 1 )i:Vi:i,()I'M KNT 415 

swept through the land. I^'ive hundred and seventy-three banks 
failed. Ivictories were compelled to close, and thousands of 
laborers were thrown out of employment. Three fourths of all 
the railroads in the country went into the hands of receivers. 

It was believed the large purchase of silver under the 
Sherman Act was one of the leading causes of the troubles. 
A special session of Congress was called (1893), and the law 
was repealed, without, however, stopping the crisis. 

467. The Pullman Strike. Immediately following the crisis 
a great railroad strike occurred in the West. Four thousand 
workmen employed by the Pullman Palace Car Company 
struck for higher wages. One hundred and fifty thousand 
members of the American Railway Union sympathized with 
the strikers and would not haul a train to which a Pullman 
car was attached. This tied up completely the railroads that 
used Chicago as a terminal. Riots followed, and the United 
States mail was obstructed. The Federal troops were sent 
by President Cleveland to protect mail trains, much to the 
displeasure of the labor leaders. The strikers were finally 
defeated. The strike lasted three months with a loss to all 
interested of about eighty million dollars. 

468. Use of the Injunction. In this contest appeared the 
use of the so-called "blanket injunction" and the discussion 
of "government by injunction." A P'ederal judge had issued 
an injunction against not only the members of the Railway 
Union but against "all other persons" to prevent interference 
with the mails. For violating this blanket injunction a mem- 
ber of the Railway Union was sentenced to jail. The United 
States Supreme Court upheld the sentence. The labor leaders 
declared the sentence was unjust, as the writ, they claimed, 
had been issued when only one side was presented. This vio- 
lated also, it was declared, the right of trial by jur\'. The 
labor unions now maintained that instead of the usual processes 
of law, the capitalist classes were trying to conduct the govern- 
ment by injunctions issued by Federal judges. 







ONE OF NEW York's great bridges 
416 



I'm: I'KRIOD OF IXDUSTRIAL DEVELOl'MEX'l' 41; 

Government by injunction, the labor leaders said, would do 
away with all the usual proceedings in criminal law. There 
would be no indictment and no trial by jury. The Federal 
judge would issue an injunction, and if it were not obeyed, the 
offender would be put at once in prison for contempt of court, 
from which there would be no appeal. Probdbly nothing since 
slavery aroused the laboring interests more than the question of 
the injunction. Congress was asked to restrain by law the use 
of the injunction, but it failed to pass any law to that end, 

469. Repeal of the Federal Elections Act. The Federal 
lilections Act, commonly called the I-\>rce Bill, which allowed 
the Federal authorities to use, if they desired, military forces 
at the polls, had been the source of so much bitter feeling and 
strife in the South that it was repealed in 1894. 

The chief issue in the presidential campaign of 1896 was 
the demand of the Democratic party for the free and unlimited 
coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of sixteen ounces of silver 
to one of gold.^ William J. ISryan was nominated on this 
platform. The Republicans opposed the free coinage of silver 
except by international agreement. They nominated William 
McKinley, who was elected. 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of (."Icveland's second administration (1S93 
1897) were : 

The Wilson Tariff Act. 

The Columbian Exposition. 

The establishment of the Republic of Hawaii. 

The Bering Sea and Venezuela questions. 

The Crisis of 1893 and the repeal of the Sherman Act. 

The repeal of the Federal Elecdons Act. 

1 Under this plan the government would be required to mint all the silver 
that was brought to it at the ratio of si.xteen ounces of silver to one of gold. 
In the world's market at this time it required thirty-two ounces of silver to buy 
one of gold. The real value of the dollar coined under this plan would be only 
fifty-two cents, although stamped one dollar. 



41 8 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

McKinley's First Administration/ i 897-1901 

470. The Dingley Tariff. At the beginning of his adminis- 
tration the new president called a special session of Congress, 
which passed (July 24, 1897) the so-called Dingley Tariff Act. 

The principal features of this act were the placing again of 
duties on wool ; hides, which had been on the free list for a 




CONGRKSSUJXAL LliiKAKV iSLilLUiM,, W Ai^HlSU iu\ 

quarter of a century, were again taxed ; higher duties were 
placed on woolens, flax, silks, and linens. Reciprocity was 
again provided for, as well as the regulations against " trusts " 
or combinations in restraint of lawful trade. 

During this year the Congressional Library Building was 
opened. Six million volumes can find place on its miles of 
shelves. The mural paintings that adorn it are world-famous. 

1 William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1S43. He enlisted in the army 
and served through the Civil War, rising to the rank of major. He was later 
admitted to the bar, and in 1876 was elected to Congress by the Republicans. 
In 1891 he was elected governor of Ohio and was reelected in 1893. He was 
elected president in 1S96 and was reelected in 1900. He died September 14, 
1901, from the bullet of an assassin. 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 419 

471. The War in Cuba. Destruction of the Maine. Trom 
1868 to 1878 war had existed in Cuba between the Cubans 
and their Spanish rulers. In 1895 a new revolt broke out, 
and the waste of life and property so near our shores led many 
to ask our government to interfere. Our government refused 
to take this step, as we were at peace with Spain, a friendly 
nation. We even tried, frequently in vain, to prevent armed 
expeditions from leaving our shores to help the insurgents. 



Key 



e^oridI 4* •*■ 

. \ ^ B I 




THE WKST INDIES 



Spain in the meantime withdrew the governor to whom the 
United States had objected and granted a larger measure of 
self-government to Cuba. 

To see that American lives and property were secure, how- 
ever, the battleship Maine was sent to Havana. On the night 
of February 15, 1898, the Maine was destroyed at her anchor- 
age. Two of her officers and two hundred and fifty-eight of 
licr crew went down with the unfortunate vessel. 

A court of inquiry, after investigation, declared its belief that 
the Maine was blown up by a submarine mine. The court did 
not, however, lay the blame on anyone. Spain at once ex- 
pressed her regret for the sad occurrence, which she believed 
was caused by an internal explosion of the forward magazine of 
the ship. She asked for arbitration, but it was refused, and 



420 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

President McKinley sent all the papers to Congress. That 
body had been anxious for two years to recognize the independ- 
ence of Cuba and, if necessary, to wage war with Spain to bring 
about that result. 

472. Declaration of War against Spain, April 25, 1898. 
The feeling against Spain in the United States, resulting from 
the loss of the Maine, became so intense that Congress passed 
resolutions which declared that " the people of Cuba are and of 
right ought to be free and independent ; that it is the duty of 
the United States to demand that Spain should give up Cuba 
and withdraw its forces from the island ; that the President is 
directed and empowered to use all the forces of the United 
States and to call out the militia in order to carry out these 
resolutions ; that the United States disclaims any intention of 
control over said island except for the pacification thereof and 
asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave 
the government and control of the island to its people," These 
resolutions caused the Spanish government to give to our min- 
ister in Madrid his passports, and April 25, 1898, Congress 
declared war to exist between the United States and Spain. 

473. Battle of Manila Bay, May i, 1898. The United 
States Asiatic Squadron, under Commodore George Dewey, 
was at this time in the harbor of Hongkong. Dewey sailed at 
once for Manila, the capital of the Philippine Islands. In 
Manila Bay he met the poorly equipped Spanish fleet and sank 
every vessel. The loss of life to the Spanish wSs very great. 

The Americans lost neither a vessel nor a man. Congress 
gave Dewey a vote of thanks and a sword, and the President 
appointed him rear admiral. He was later given the highest 
rank in the navy — that of admiral. 

474. The Santiago Campaign. El Caney and San Juan. 
Another Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera^ sailed from 
Spain and safely reached the harbor of Santiago,^ Cuba. At 
once a large fleet of United States warships gathered before 

1 Cervera (ther veh'rah). - Santiago (sahn tee ah'go). 



THK PFLRIOD OF 1X1)1 STRIAL DFAKLOl'M KNT 421 

the entrance to Santiago. In the meantime our army had 
landed in eastern Cuba and drawn near the city of Santiago, 
On July I and 2 the Americans attacked the fortified posts 
of El Caney ^ and San Juan .2 After a gallant defense the 
Spaniards were driven back and took refuge behind the defenses 





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SAN JUAN, PORTO RICO 

of Santiago.3 On the following day (July 3) the Spanish fleet 
made a sudden dash out of the harbor. They were at once 
attacked by the American warships and every Spanish vessel 
was destroyed. Admiral Cervera and twelve hundred of his 
men were made prisoners, while the loss of life on his vessels 
had been very great. The American loss was one man killed. 

1 El Caney (el kah' nay). 

2 San Juan (sahn whahn'). 

3 In the Atnerican army was a volunteer regiment of cavalry made up of 
cowboys, college graduates, adventurers, and expert horsemen. They were in 
consequence called the Rough Riders. There were only five hundred of 
this regiment before Santiago, and most of the fighting was done by the regular 
standing army of the United States. 



422 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Not a vessel had been seriously injured. Two weeks later 
(July 17) the city of Santiago surrendered. Porto Rico was 
captured with practically no resistance. 

475. Terms of Peace. War in the Philippines. The Spanish 
government now sought terms of peace, and commissioners met 
in Paris. On December 10, 1898, the treaty was signed. As 
a result of the war Spain lost Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philip- 
pines, and Guam in the Ladrones.^ For the improvements in 
the Philippines twenty millions of dollars were paid. The 
treaty was ratified February 6, 1899. The war had cost € 
United States eight hundred and forty-two million dollars,' 
although it lasted only a few months. 

The Filipinos in the meantime had organized a republic 
under the dictatorship of Aguinaldo,^ their military leader. 
They declined to recognize the right of Spain to cede their coun- 
try to the Americans, and war finally broke out February 4, 1 899, 
between the Americans and the Filipinos. P'or several days 
the Filipinos presented a strong front to the American troops, 
until the fall of Malolos,^ their capital. Although for most of 
the time after this event there was merely guerrilla warfare, the 
war continued for two years. 

476. The Hague Conference. The Czar of Russia invited 
(1898) the nations of the world t- a conference, to secure if 
possible the abolition of war and the reduction of standing 
armies. In answer to this invitation the nations sent represent- 
atives to The Hague, in Holland, where the conference opened 
in 1899. Many plans were adopted Tor relieving the horrors 
of war, and it was decided to establish an International Court 
of Arbitration, in which most of the greater nations of the 
world are represented. 

477. The Gold Standard Act. The discussion over the rela- 
tive merits of gold and silver as the standard of value had 
been the leading question in the presidential election of 1896, 

1 Ladrones (lah dro'nace). - Aguinaldo (ah gee nahl'do). 

^ Malolos (mah loh'loce). 




_^^^i4^y-h^f^ ^ ALASKA ^ 

&■ 190° - Ijjl 



. i 




LongituJe 100" We 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 423 



Congress finally took up the matter and passed an act making 
the gold dollar the standard of value and providing for " the 
maintenance at a 
parity with that 
standard of all 
forms of money 
issued or coined by 
the United States." 
This measure was 
warmly opposed in 
both the Senate 
and House of Rep- 
resentatives, but 
it became a law 
March 14, 1900. ^ 
478. Freedom 
of Trade with 
China. The lead- 
ing nations of 
Europe, in their 
desire for further 
colonial territory, 
secured from China 
on one pretext or 
another portions of 
her territory. It 
seemed probable 
that all China 
would be divided among the European nations, who would prob- 
ably place heavy customs duties on all goods entering the ports 

1 There was at this time a large increase in the world's supply of gold through 
the discovery of gold mines in the Klondike region of Canada. From these 
mines one hundred and twenty-four million dollars' worth of gold was produced 
in the next twelve years. The Klondike discovery was followed one year later by 
the news that gold had been found in large quantities at Cape Nome in Alaska. 
These discoveries caused the stampede of thousands to the far Northwest. 




i:.\sTERx .vsi.v .wn the philipimxe islands 



424 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

of China under their control. As this would shut out our goods, 
the United States asked (1899) Great Britain, Germany, Russia, 
France, Italy, and Japan to grant free trade to all the world in the 
Chinese ports under their control. In resentment at the action 
of foreign nations in China an insurrection broke out (1900) 
called the Boxer Rebellion, which planned to kill all foreigners 
in China or drive them from the country. The foreign lega- 
tions in Peking were besieged, and some Europeans were killed. 
Eight of the leading nations of the world sent troops to relieve 
the legations. Fortunately these troops were able to fight their 
way into Peking in time to save the members of the legations. 
Many of the nations later agreed to the policy of the " open door," 
by which the dismemberment of China might be averted.^ 

479. Reelection of President McKinley. In the presidential 
election of 1900 President McKinley was reelected. Theodore 
Roosevelt was elected vice president. The Democratic candidate 
was William J. Bryan. 

A leading issue of the campaign was again the free coin- 
age of silver at the ratio of 16 to i. Another issue was 
"imperialism." Imperialism means the method of ruling a 
people without their consent. It was declared by the Demo- 
cratic party that in maintaining colonies we were doing this 
and thereby departing from our republican form of government. 
The Republicans were successful in the election, and President 
McKinley was reelected, 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of McKinley 's first administration (1897- 
1901) were: 

The Dingley tariff. 

The war with Spain and in the Philippines. 

The Hague Conference. 

Freedom of trade with China. 

1 By a cession signed by the native chiefs and by a treaty with England and 
Germany we secured (April 17, 1900) Tutuila, with the excellent harbor of 
Pagopago, and a few other islands of the Samoan group. 



•J'lIF. I'KKIOI) OK IXDISIKIAL DKVKLOl'MENT 425 

McKiNLEv's Second Administration, 1901 ; Roosevelt's 
First Administration, 1901-1905 

480. The Pan-American Exposition. Assassination of Presi- 
dent McKinley. In the spring of 1901 the Pan-American 
l^xpositiun was opened in Buffalo. The purpose of the exposi- 
tion was to show the development of the states of North, 
Central, and South America, and to join in bonds of friend- 
ship the republics of the New World. 

On September 6, while President McKinley was giving a 
public reception, he was shot by an anarchist, Leon ¥. Czolgosz.^ 
He died September 14, and Vice President Roosevelt^ at once 
assumed the office of president. 

481. The Panama Canal. The earliest Spanish explorers 
recognized the value of a canal that would pierce the Isthmus 
of Panama and join the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean.-'^ 
Many years ago a French company began to dig a canal be- 
tween Panama and Colon, but the enormous cost of the under- 
taking and the difficulties met in its construction compelled 
them to stop work. The Congress of the United States at last 
actively took up the question and voted (1902) to build the 
canal, buying out the P^rench rights for forty million dollars. 
Panama at this time was one of the states of the Republic of 
Colombia. While the treaty between the United States and 

1 Czolgosz (chol'gosh). 

2 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City in 185S. He served in 
the legislature of the state of New York and in 1889 was appointed United 
States Civil Service Commissioner. In 1897 he was made Assistant Secretary 
of the Navy. At the outbreak of the war with Spain he resigned this office to 
organize the Rough Riders. In 1898 he was elected governor of New York. 
Two years later he was elected vice president of the United States and suc- 
ceeded as president on the death of President McKinley. He was elected 
president in 1904. lie was a candidate for a third term in 1912 but was 
defeated. 

3 Charles I of Spain (i 516-1556) wished to build a canal and Philip II. 
his successor, was at first favorable to the plan but later forbade even the dis- 
cussion of the question. In 1814 the Spanish government voted to cut the 
canal, but nothing was done. 



426 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Colombia was being considered by the Congress of the latter 
country, the state of Panama rose in rebellion against Colombia 
and declared itself an independent republic. It was at once 
recognized as such by the United States and by the great 
nations of the world. Later the republic of Panama gave to 
the United States control over the zone through which the 




THE FIRST SHU' THROUGH THE PANAMA CAXAL 



canal has been built. So rapidly was the work pushed to com- 
pletion that the canal was opened in 19 14 to the commerce 
of the world. 

482. The Development of Latin-America. As the building of 
the canal through the Isthmus of Panama ushers in a new era 
for the countries of Central and South America, a brief review 
of their history is necessary. South America was reached by 
Columbus on his third voyage in 1498. He touched the continent 
at the mouth of the Orinoco. On his fourth voyage (1502) he 
explored the coast of Central America. In the meantime Cabral, 
the Portuguese voyager, reached the coast in 1 500, giving 
Portugal title to that rich country. In 1 5 1 3 Balboa crossed 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DKVF.LOPMEXT 427 

the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. 
The southern point of the continent was reached by Magellan 
in 1520, when he discovered the strait which gave passage to 
ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Within twent3'-eight 
years, therefore, of the discovery of America, so active had 
been the Latin spirit of exploration that the whole east coast 
of South America had been explored. With the conquest of 
Mexico by the Spaniards under Cortes in 1 5 2 1 and the triumph 
of Pizarro over Peru in 1531 the west coast began to pass 
under Spanish rule, and colonies w^ere set up in all parts of 
Central and South America. These colonies flourished under 
the laws of the Indies, drawn up by Spain for the government 
of her colonies in the New World. The leading colonies were 
Buenos Aires, New Granada (or Colombia), Venezuela, Chile, . 
Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Guatemala, Hon- 
duras, and Costa Rica. 

483. The Overthrow of Spanish and Portuguese Rule. In 
1808 Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the monarchy of Spain 
and placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. This 
was the signal for revolt in Latin America. Mexico declared 
her independence in 18 10, and the other colonies followed 
immediately. Under the leadership of Miranda, Bolivar, and 
Sucre in the north and San Marti'n in the south the colonies, 
after many years of bitter warfare, won their independence — 
Buenos Aires, or Argentina (18 16), Chile (18 18), Mexico, Vene- 
zuela, Colombia, and Peru (182 1). The colonies of Central 
America also became independent republics during this epoch. 

When Portugal, in 1807, was overrun by the forces of 
Napoleon, the Portuguese king fled to Brazil. Later, when 
Brazil threw off its allegiance to Portugal, the son of the king 
of Portugal was elected emperor of Brazil, which remained an 
empire until 1889, when the empire was overthrown and a 
republic established. Throughout the Latin republics revolu- 
tion has followed revolution, but many have at last arrived at a 
condition of peace and prosperity. 



428 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

484. Department of Commerce and Labor. Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition. To cope with the growing foreign and. do- 
mestic commerce of the United States a national department 
of commerce and labor was created (1903) and the secretary 
was given a seat in the president's cabinet.^ The department 
has greatly advanced the trade and industry of the country. 

To commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the purchase 
of Louisiana by President Jefferson the Louisiana Purchase 
Exposition was held in St. Louis in 1904. The exposition 
showed the extent and the development of the resources of 
our country and the skill of its people in arts and trades. 

485. The National Election of 1904. In 1904 the Republi- 
cans nominated for president Theodore Roosevelt, who had 
filled that high office since the death of President McKinley. 

The Democrats chose as their candidate for president Alton 
B. Parker, Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals of New York. 

Among the leading issues of the campaign were the colonial 
policy of the country, especially in reference to the retention of 
the Philippine Islands, the revision of the tariff, and the need 
of greater economy in the expenditure of the money of the 
government. In the election the Republicans were successful, 
and Roosevelt was elected. 



Leading events of McKinley 's and Roosevelt's administrations 
(1901-1905): 

Pan-American Exposition. 

Panama Canal treaty. 

Establishment of Department of Commerce and Labor. 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition. 

1 The president's cabinet consists of (i) the Secretary of State; (2) the 
Secretary of the Treasury; (3) the Secretary of War; (4) the Attorney-General ; 
(5) the Postmaster-General; (6) the Secretary of the Navy; (7) the Secretary 
of the Interior; (8) the Secretary of Agriculture (1SS9) ; (9) the Secretary of 
Commerce (1903); (10) the Secretary of Labor (1913). Only the first seven 
can succeed to the presidency under the Act of 1SS6 (see sect. 451). 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 429 

Roosevelt's Second Administration, 1905-1909 

486. The San Francisco Disaster. On the morning of 
April 18, 1906, a violent earthquake shook the central coast 
region of California for a distance of hundreds of miles. So 
violent was the shock at San Francisco that thousands of build- 
ings were destroyed and the pipes supplying the city with water 
were broken. Fires broke out quickly in many sections of the 
city and for two days the flames swept onward. An area of 
almost four square miles was devastated, with a loss of hun- 
dreds of millions of dollars. From all parts of the country 
and even from distant Japan generous aid was sent to the 
stricken city. 

487. Admission of Oklahoma. As early as 1834 Congress 
set aside a vast tract of country west of the Mississippi River 
for the use of the Indians. From this great area many states 
were later formed, until finally only Indian Territory remained. 

In that year the United States government purchased from 
the Indian tribes the western portion of this territory. It was 
given the name Oklahoma, or Beautiful Countr\-, from the 
great fertility of its soil. Oklahoma was thrown open ta settle- 
ment in 1889. Cities quickly arose, and within ten years the 
prosperous territory had a population of hundreds of thousands 
of people. 

In 1906 Congress passed an act admitting Oklahoma and 
Indian Territory into the Union as a state under the name of 
Oklahoma. Its area is greater than that of all the New Eng- 
land states combined. 

488. Important Legislation. During the session of 1906 
Congress passed three important laws, — the Railway Rate Act, 
the Meat Inspection Act, and the Pure Food and Drugs Act. 

The purpose of the Railway Rate Act is to give greater 
power to the Federal government in regulating interstate com- 
merce. It requires railway corporations and other common 
carriers to treat all shippers of goods over their lines with equal 



430 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

fairness. The law forbids the secret rates and rebates by which 
the trusts to a great extent have been built up. 

The Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drugs Act 
provide for the strict examination and labeling of food products. 
These laws have raised the standard of our food products and 
have greatly promoted the health of the people. 

489. Intervention in Cuba. At the signing of the treaty of 
peace with Spain in 1 898 Cuba passed under the military control 
of the United States. In 1901 the Congress of the United 
States, under the so-called Piatt Amendment, voted to leave the 
control of Cuba to the people of that island if they would agree 
to make no treaty with any foreign power that would endanger 
their independence ; to contract no debt for which the current 
revenue would not suffice ; to give to the United States the 
right to intervene, if necessary, to preserve life, property, or 
individual liberty ; and to give to the United States two naval 
stations in Cuba. These conditions were accepted by Cuba, 
a new Constitution was adopted, and a president and Congress 
were elected. The United States thereupon formally recognized 
(May 20, 1902) the new republic of Cuba. 

In 1906 a revolution broke out against the government of 
Cuba, and the president of that country resigned. The United 
States thereupon sent a military force to maintain order and to 
take control of the island until the revolution should end and 
a new president should be elected. The new president took his 
seat in 1909 and the provisional government • of the United 
States was withdrawn, 

490. The Second Hague Peace Conference, 1907. The first 
Peace Conference of 1899 at The Hague had been so successful 
that the president of the United States suggested a second 
conference. This conference met at The Hague June 15, 1907. 
Forty-four nations were represented. While the conference 
did not succeed in reducing the armies and the navies of the 
world, it made provision for the collection of contract debts by 
peaceful means instead of by the use of an army and navy ; it 



THE PP:RI0I) of IXDL'STRIAL DKVELOl'.MKM' 



43' 



also established a prize court for neutrals/ and made further 
provision for the International Court of Arbitration.'-^ 

491. The Crisis of 1907. Presidential Election. In the autumn 
of 1907 a large trust company in New York City failed, and a 
crisis as severe as any that has ever befallen the country spread 
through all parts of the Union. Many banks and trust com- 
panies failed, and there was widespread distress in all sections 
of the country. 

In the presidential election of 1908 the Republicans nom- 
inated William H. Taft for president. The Democrats nom- 
inated William J. Bryan. The issues of the campaign were the 
trusts, imperialism, the protective tariff, and the use of the 
injunction. The Republicans were successful, and Taft was 
elected president. 

SinMMARY 

The leading events of Roost-velt's second administration (1905- 
1909) were as follows: 

The San Francisco disaster. 

The admission of Oklahoma. 

The Railway Rate Act. 

The Meat Inspection Act. 

The Pure Food and Drugs Act. 

Intervention in Cuba. 

The Hague Peace Conference. 

The Crisis of 1907. 

1 The first case before the Hague Tribunal was the so-called " Pious 
F"und " case. This case arose over the seizure of property belonging to the 
Roman Catholic Church in California when Mexico owned that territor)-. 
The Mexican government had promised to pay six per cent of the value of 
the seized property annually to the Church. Mexico had failed to pay, how- 
ever, for many years, and the United States asked for the adjustment of the 
matter. The Hague Tribunal decided in favor of the United States, and 
Mexico at once paid the debt. 

- In 1904 war broke out between Japan and Russia. So many lives were 
lost in the battles of the war that the president of the United States invited 
the governments of Japan and Russia to send representatives to a confer- 
ence. The invitation was accepted, the representatives met at Portsmouth, 
New Hampshire, and a treaty of peace was signed, putting an end to the 
fearful struggle in the East. 



432 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Taft's Administration,^ 1909-19 13 

492. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. Believing that the ever- 
increasing cost of Hving was due in part to the high tariff 
duties of the Dingley Act there arose a widespread desire 
among the people for a downward revision of the tariff. 
Shortly after his inauguration, therefore, President Taft called 
a special session of Congress. After a long debate in the 
House of Representatives and in the Senate, the Payne-Aldrich 
Tariff Act became a law (August 5, 1909). The new tariff was 
a great disappointment to a vast majority of the people, as it 
increased duties instead of reducing them. 

493. Two Great Celebrations. The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific 
Exposition was opened June i, 1909, at Seattle, Washington. 
The object of this exposition was to show the wealth of the 
Pacific coast and Alaska Territory and to promote the develop- 
ment of commerce across the Pacific with the Orient. 

The Hudson-Fulton Celebration, held in New York City 
and the Hudson River counties (September 25-October 9, 
1909), commemorated two great events."^ . The first Vv'as the 
three hundredth anniversary of the exploration of the Hudson 
River by Henry Hudson, in the Dutch ship Half Moon, in 
1609. The second event commemorated was the one hun- 
dredth anniversary of the first successful application of steam 
navigation by Robert Fulton, in the Clermont, in 1807. The 
people of Holland built an exact reproduction of the Half Moon, 
which was presented to the American people for the celebration. 
The little Clermont was also reproduced. 

1 William Howard Taft was born in Ohio in 1857, and in 1880 was admitted 
to the bar. He was appointed judge of the United States Circuit Court in 1892 
and became the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands in 1901. In 1904 
he became Secretary of War. In 1908 he was elected president of the United 
States, and was defeated for reelection in 191 2. 

■^ In September, 1909, the news reached the United States that the north 
pole had been discovered five months before (April 6, 1909) by an American 
naval officer, Commodore Robert E. Peary. Two years later (December 14, 
191 1) Captain Roald Amundsen of Norway discovered the south pole. 



THE PERIOD OF IXDL'STRIAL DEVELOPMENT 



433 



491. Process of Naturalization. The United States has 
ahvays maintained that the subject of a foreign power could, 
under certain conditions, change his citizenship and become an 
American citizen. The earUest naturahzation law required five 
years' residence here. The Federalists changed (179S) the law 
so that fourteen years' residence was required. Tliis act was 
repealed in 1802, and five years again made the necessary 






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period of residence. The subject of a foreign power coming 
to our shores who desires to become a citizen must make a 
declaration of intention to the Federal or state court. Two 
years after this declaration a petition for citizenship is made. 
The person seeking citizenship must prove by two witnesses 
that he or she has been in the country five years, is of good 
character, can speak English, can sign his or her name, and 
has some understanding of the Constitution and of our form 
of government. When this has been done final papers may be 
issued and the applicant receives full citizenship. 



434 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

495. Admission of New Mexico and Arizona. The area 
included in New Mexico and Arizona was first visited by 
Europeans in 1 5 36, when Cabeza de Vaca traversed it. Three 
years later it was visited by the Franciscan Friar Marcos and 
in 1540 by Coronado. Upon the revolt of Mexico from Spain 
it was made (1824) a territory of the republic of Mexico, It 
became a part of the United States in 1848 and two years later 
received a territorial form of government. In 1863 the western 
part of the territory was formed into the territory of Arizona. 
In 19 10 Congress passed the Enabling Act, admitting the 
territories of New Mexico and Arizona, and in 19 12 President 
Taft issued his proclamations admitting them to the Union. 

496. The National Census of 1910. In 1910 the thirteenth 
national census of the United States was taken and showed a 
population of 93,402,151. If the inhabitants of the Philippine 
islands, Guam, Tutuila, and the Canal Zone are included, the 
total number of people under our flag in 19 10 was 101,100,000. 

497. Land Laws and Conservation of Natural Resources. 
It has always been the policy of our government to aid the 
development of the country by granting to colonists the oppor- 
tunity of securing homes on the public lands of the West. In 
1862 the famous Homestead Act was passed (see sect. 391). 

The rapid growth of the West under the Homestead Act 
is one of the most astonishing facts in history. Towns sprang 
up in all the Western section, territories were organized and 
quickly became states, railroads were built, millions of bushels 
of wheat and corn were sent to the Eastern states and to 
Europe ; where but a few years before the bison had roamed 
were now to be seen the homes of millions of happy and 
prosperous American citizens. 

The passing of the public land area, however, has called 
the attention of the country to the necessity of preserving our 
natural resources. By the Reclamation Act of 1902 Congress 
provided for the building of great dams and ditches to irrigate 
the arid regions of the West. 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 435 



While the arid area in America is great, the area that has 
too much water is even greater. The bogs, swamps, and marshes 
of the United States are equal to one twenty-fifth of its entire 
area. If these swamps were drained, they would give land of 
the richest value equal in extent to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 

These are but a few of the problems that are to be solved 
in the great conservation movement throughout our nation. 




t,'iH^^^ 



SALT KIVKK IKKICATION DAM IN ARIZONA 



498. The Development of Canada. As we have seen, Canada 
was first explored and developed by the French under Cartier, 
Champlain, Frontcnac, and Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries. 
In 1629 the Company of New France under Cardinal Richelieu 
attempted to colonize the country-, but its efforts ended in failure. 
In 1663 Canada became a royal province with a government on 
the model of France itself. The wars between the French and 
English in America, extending from 1689 to 1763, resulted in 



436 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the loss of Canada by France. The entire country was ceded 
to England. In 1774 a government was organized under the 
Quebec Act. One year later the American Revolution began. 
The American colonists attempted to capture Canada and 
separate it from Great Britain. The attempt was a failure, as 
the Americans were repulsed at Quebec (December 31, 1775) 
and the Canadians refused to give up their allegiance to Great 
Britain. Soon after the outbreak of the Revolution the Loyal- 
ists, or Tories, to the number of forty thousand, fled to Canada 
and settled there. 

In 1 79 1 Canada was divided at the Ottawa River into 
Upper and Lower Canada. Under the Act of Union of 1840 
the provinces were again united. Twenty-seven years later, in 
1867, the Dominion of Canada came into existence by an act 
of Parliament of Great Britain. Under this act the Dominion 
was given virtual self-government; while to each province was 
granted direction of its own affairs in so far as they did not 
conflict with the general laws of the Dominion. The Dominion 
comprised the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, 
and Nova Scotia. The development of the West as a result 
of extensive railroad building has since added Manitoba, British 
Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. Prince Edward Island 
joined the Dominion in 1873. Newfoundland never entered 
the Canadian confederation. It remained a province until 
191 7, when it was created the Dominion of Newfoundland. 

499. Reciprocity with Canada. The Payne Tariff Act of 
1909, by its high duties on the necessaries of life, aroused wide- 
spread discontent among the people. To relieve somewhat this 
burden of high-tariff taxation President Taft arranged a reci- 
procity treaty with Canada for closer trade relations which 
would facilitate the exchange of manufactured goods and food 
products. Despite the strenuous opposition of the high-tariff 
advocates the measure was passed by Congress and was later 
approved for Canada by the Canadian Premier Laurier, who 
appealed to his country to sustain him in the measure. He 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOl'MEM 



43; 



was defeated, however, and the new Conservative party whicli 
came into power in Canada dropped the reciprocity treaty. 

500. Presidential Election of 1912. In the presidential elec- 
tion of 1912 tlie Republicans renominated President Taft. 
Roosevelt tried to secure the Republican nomination, but failed, 
and was nominated on a so-called Progressive ticket. 

The Democrats nominated Woodrow Wilson, who was 
governor of New Jersey. The Democratic platform recom- 
mended a reduction of the tariff, an income tax, and direct 
election of United States senators. 

Wilson secured an overwhelming victory. As the Senate 
and House of Representatives became Democratic the entire 
government was now controlled by the Democrats for the 
second time since the outbreak of the Civil War. 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of Taft's administration were : 

The Payne Tariff Act of 1909. 

The great celebrations at Seattle and New York. 

Admission of New Mexico and Arizona to the Union in 191 2. 

The conservation question. 

Reciprocity movement with Canada. 

Dates to be remembered : 

1898. War with Spain (beginning of American colonial expansion). 

Dates for reference : 

1898. Battle of Manila (May i). 

1900. Gold Standard Act. 

1964. Cession to the United States of the Canal Zone. 

1906. Admission of Oklahoma. 

19 1 2. Admission of Arizona and New Mexico. 

Map work : 

On a map trace the route of a United States transport from San 
Francisco to Manila, with stops at Honolulu and Guam. 

On a map show the position of San Juan, Porto Rico ; Santiago 
and Havana in Cuba. 



438 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

REVIEW EXAMINATION 

1. What are the principal industries of the Pacific coast states? Show 
the relation of the transcontinental railroad to the development of these 
states. What advantage comes to the Pacific coast from the Panama Canal? 

2. What are the three most important island possessions of the United 
States? How vi^as each acquired? 

3. What did each of the following invent : Morse, Fulton, McCormick, 
Howe, Ericsson, Edison, Bell, Whitney. 

4. What is meant by the Hague Tribunal ? What was the first Ameri- 
can case before it ? 

5. Explain the following terms : protective tariff ; strict and loose con- 
struction ; naturalization ; internal improvements ; conservation of natural 
resources. 

6. Name two great American philanthropists and tell something each 
has done. Name two poets, one novelist, and two writers of prose, and tell 
something each has written in connection with the history of our country. 

7. Compare appro.ximately, with reference to area, population, and 
number of states, the United States at the present time with the United 
States in 1 790. 

8. What do you understand by (a) the initiative ; {d) the referendum ; 
(c) the recall ; (ef) commission form of government. 

9. What advantages for farming has irrigation over natural rainfall and 
what disadvantages? 

10, Explain two of the following: civil service ; Homestead Act; boycott; 
treaty ; treason ; strike. 

READINGS 

Histories. Andrews, E. B., United States in Our Own Time. 
CoMAN, K., Industrial History of the United States. Dewey, D. R., 
National Problems. Dunning, W. A., Reconstruction, Political and 
Economic. Grady, H. W., New South. Hart, A. B., National Ideals. 
Latan^, J. H., America as a World Power. Oberholtzer, E. P., 
History of United States since the Civil War. Paxson, F. L., The Last 
American Frontier; The New Nation. Sparks, E. E., National Devel- 
opment. Tarbell, I. M., The Tariff in Our Times. Van Hise, C. R., 
The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States. 

Sources. Hart, Contempora^-ies, Vol. IV, p. 515 (Completion of the 
Pacific Railroad) ; p. 547 (Purchase of Alaska) ; p. 608 (Right of Self- 
Government); p. 617 (Besieged in Peking); p. 658 (American Contribution 



THE PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 439 

to Civilization). Ml'ZZEV, Keatfi/igs, p. 481 (The Farmer and the Rail- 
road); p. 518 (The New South); p. 522 (The Hurricane at Samoa); p. 533 
(The Venezuela Question); p. 546 (The Spanish War and the Philippines); 
p. 566 (The Trusts). 

Fiction. Cooliuoe, I)., Hidden U'ti/er (a. tale of cattle and sheep wars 
on the ranges of the West). Dixon, Jr., Thos., T/ie Clansman (a story of 
the Ku-Klux Klan). Foote, M. H., Cceur d\4lene (an interesting story of 
the silver mines of Idaho). Ford, P. L., The Honorable Peter Stirling 
(a story of high political ideal in the last years of the nineteenth century). 
Kei.lv, M.. Little Citisens (a graphic view of life in New York). Long- 
fellow, \\. W., Revenge of Rain-in-the-Face (a poem based on Custer's 
defeat). I*A(;i-:, T. N., Red Rock (a story of the period of reconstruction). 
Parker, G., T/ie Magnetic North (a story of the gold-seekers in Alaska). 
Richardson, N., The Long Day (a picture of life among the women wage- 
earners in New York City). White, W. A.. A Certain Rich Man (a story 
of Kansas life); The Blazed Trail (a tale of logging in Michigan). 



CHAPTER XV 
THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 

" In the short space of our national life, we have lived more dreams 
and put more of them into execution for the benefit of the world, acted a 
more thrilling drama on the stage of life, fought and bled in a more epic 
struggle for liberty and democracy . . . than was given to the heroes of 
Marathon or Salamis to face." — J. C. Reville, S. J. 

Wilson's First Administration,^ 191 3-19 17 

501. New Amendments. In 191 3 two amendments were 
added to the Constitution, the first since 1870. The Sixteenth 
Amendment allows an income tax to be laid without apportion- 
ment among the several states and without regard to any census 
enumeration.^ Under the Underwood Tariff Act an income 
tax was passed in 19 16, The Seventeenth Amendment pro- 
vides for the direct election of United States senators by the 
people. Up to this time the members of the Senate were elected 
by the legislatures of the various states .'^ 

502. The Department of Labor. In 1903 the Department 
of Commerce and Labor was added to the president's cabinet. 
To study more fully the problems of labor and to meet the 
changing conditions in the world of industry the Department 
of Labor was separated (191 3) from the Department of Com- 
merce. The new secretary took his seat for the first time in 
President Wilson's cabinet. 

1 Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia in 1856. He studied law and later 
became a professor in Princeton University, of which he was elected president 
in 1902. In 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey. He was elected 
president of the United States in 1912 and was reelected in 1916. On the 
same ticket with him Thomas R. Marshall was elected vice president in 191 2 
and reelected in 1916. 

- See Constitution, Section 9. •' See Constitution, Section 3. 

440 



THE UNrrED STATES AS A WORLD I'oWI'R 441 



503. The Underwood Tariff Act. The Tariff Commission. 

In the presidential election of 191 2, as \vc liavc seen, the tariff 
was one of the vital issues of the campaign. The Democrats, 
when they came into power, proceeded at once to carr)' out 
their pledges of a real reduction in tariff schedules. The Under- 
wood act was signed by President Wilson, October 3, 19 13. 

The history of the tariff has 
been one of constant fluctuation, 
a contest between the advocates 
of a tariff for revenue only and 
a protective tariff. The first 
tariff, of 1789, averaged 7^ per 
cent ad valorem and was largely 
a revenue tariff. In 18 16 the 
protective feature came to the 
front, when the rates in some 
schedules were advanced as high 
as 35 per cent. The tariff of 
1824 and the " tariff of abomi- 
nations " of 1828 still further 
increased the duties. The action 
of South Carolina and other 
Southern states which threatened 

to nullify the tariff led to the Compromise Tariff of 1833, 
which brought about a gradual reduction of duties to 20 
per cent. In 1842 the tariff was again made protective, but 
the Walker Tariff of 1846 again lowered the duties. It was 
"a revenue tariff with incidental protection." The Morrill 
Tariff of 1861 was protective. The need of revenue during 
the Civil War caused advances in the tariff from time to time. 
It was supposed that the high tariff rates would be lowered 
after the war, but the protective interests prevented this 
action. The tariff act of 1883 left the tariff about as high 
as it was during the Civil War. In 1890 the McKinley Tariff 
came out unqualifiedly for very high protective duties, but in 




WOODROW WILSON 



442 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

1894 the Wilson Tariff reduced the duties somewhat. The 
Dingley Tariff of 1897 was again highly protective, as was 
the Payne Tariff of 1909. In 191 3 the Underwood Tariff 
reduced the duties to the lowest point in half a century and 
greatly enlarged the free list. By the action of Congress in 
19 16 a permanent tariff commission of six members was 
appointed to study the tariff question in its relation to our busi- 
ness life. This commission will make suggestions to Congress 
for any changes in the tariff laws that may be called for by the 
business conditions of the United States in their relation to 
foreign countries. It is hoped that the tariff will hereafter be 
a business rather than a political question. 

504. The Federal Reserve Currency Act. From time to time 
there have been disastrous panics or financial crises in the United 
States — as in 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893, and 1907. Again, the 
supply of currency in various sections of the country has been 
inadequate when it was most needed, as in the West during 
the great harvest season. 

To prevent further panics, and if possible to place our national 
finances in a stable yet more elastic condition, Congress passed 
(191 3) the Federal Reserve Act. This provides for a General 
Reserve Bank, with branch banks established in various cities 
of the country. 

This General Reserve Bank with its branches is made up of 
national banks, state banks, and trust companies. This new 
Federal Reserve system has been a valuable ai'd in placing our 
finances on a sound basis. It prevented a financial crisis at the 
outbreak of the great world war and has secured to the various 
sections of the country ample financial aid in times of need. 

505. Great Industrial Works. The Keokuk Dam. The Cape 
Cod Canal. Near Keokuk, Iowa, the Mississippi River forms 
rapids as it flows down through a narrow valley between high 
bluffs that form its banks. To utilize the water power created 
by the mighty river at this point, a high dam almost a mile in 
length has been built across the river. A power house generates 



THE INTTKI) STATES AS A WORLD POWER 



443 



electricity for light, heat, and traction. The electric current is 
carried on wires to many great cities of tiie Middle West, liy 
means of a large lock built in connection with the dam, vessels 
are now enabled to pass quickly up and down the river. 

Another work of great importance is the Cape Cod Canal. 
This canal is eight miles long and is at sea level. It extends 
across Cape Cod between Barnstable Bay and Buzzards Bay. 




THE KEOKUK DAM 



506. The Panama Tolls Act. Under the Cla}ton-Bul\ver treaty 
of 1850 (see sect. 345, note) it was provided that neither the 
United States nor Great Britain should exercise any authority 
over any state of Central America or any exclusive control of 
any canal that might be built in that section. This treaty was 
superseded in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, which pro- 
vided that the United States should enjoy the sole right to con- 
struct and maintain a canal across the Isthmus, giving all 
nations equal terms in its use. In the Panama Canal Act of 
191 1 it was provided that vessels of the United States should 
be exempt from the payment of tolls. It was believed by many 
that this was a violation of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty. In 1914 
Congress repealed this provision, and all vessels may now use 
the Canal on terms of equality. 



444 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

507. Important Legislation. To promote the development 
of the territory of Alaska, Congress passed (19 14) a law for 
the construction by our government of a railroad, one thousand 
miles in length, from the coast inland to the Yukon River, 
This railroad will open up the great coal and timber tracts of 
Alaska, but government supervision will prevent waste of these 
valuable national resources. 

The Clayton Anti -Trust Act and the Federal Trade Com- 
mission Law are designed to prevent unfair competition and 
restraint of trade. 

508. New Political Movements. The Initiative, Referendum, 
Recall, and Direct Primary. Since the beginning of the twen- 
tieth century many new political movements have been proposed 
and adopted which change to a marked degree the former 
systems of government. The general trend of the new legis- 
lation is to allow the people to have a more direct influence 
on the legislators they have chosen. 

The Initiative is a measure which gives the voters the right 
to begin or initiate legislation. When a certain small number 
(generally five per cent) of the people desire a bill to be con- 
sidered, they can petition the legislature, and the legislators 
are thereby required to introduce and consider the bill. 

Under the Referendum a certain number of voters can 
petition the legislature to refer any important act to the 
people to be accepted or rejected by them before it can 
become a law. 

The Recall means that the people may demand the recall 
of a public ofificial. The Recall demands, therefore, another 
election, and the official, if the required number of votes is 
cast against him, will thereby be removed from office irrespec- 
tive of the time for which he had been at first elected. 

The Direct Primary, wherever adopted, gives to the people 
an opportunity to vote directly by ballot for the nomination 
of officials. It supersedes the earlier method of sending dele- 
gates to a convention which made the nominations. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 445 

509. Municipal Problems. Commission Form of Govern- 
ment. Among the problems tliat from time to time have con- 
fronted the people has been the proper government of our 
cities, for it is generally believed that there has been much 
corruption and great lack of efficiency m our municipal rule. 

The government of most of our cities is made uj) of a 
mayor, a board of aldermen, and a common council. In 
a small way it is similar to the three departments in our 
national and state governments. 

As a result of the Galveston disaster in 1900, a commission 
of experts was given charge of rebuilding the city. So wonder- 
fully efficient and economical was the work of this commission 
that it became the municipal governing body. Many other 
cities — led particularly by Des Moines, which worked out a 
very acceptable plan — have since adopted this so-called com- 
mission form of city government to replace the older plan of 
mayor, board of aldermen, and common council. 

510. Safeguarding the Public Health. Great strides in the 
safeguarding of the public health have been made by national, 
state, and city health officers. Our ports are guarded against 
the introduction of diseases from abroad, the states at times 
enforce quarantine laws against other states, and the tenement- 
house requirements of the cities have been framed to prevent 
the development and spread of disease. 

A study of the diseases that formerly in epidemics swept 
away whole populations has materially reduced the death rate 
year by year and nearly put an end to epidemics. Vaccination 
has caused almost the entire disappearance of smallpox, once 
so common and so fatal. The discovery of the fact that a cer- 
tain type of mosquito spreads yellow fever has aided in con- 
quering that dreaded disease. The bubonic plague that in 
1348, as the so-called " Black Death," swept away half of the 
people of Europe has been controlled since it was discovered 
that rats and ground squirrels carry the fleas that spread the 
disease. The ravages of tuberculosis are being lessened bv 



446 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

letting fresh air and sunshine into the dark tenements and 
by requiring the new houses to have a certain amount of air 
and light space. The number of cases of typhoid fever has 
been greatly reduced by various measures. The campaign 
against the house fly, which bears the germ of typhoid from 
place to place, has been productive of excellent results. 
Probably the leading causes of typhoid fever are impure milk 
and impure water. To secure pure milk, the dairies are now 
carefully examined and clean conditions are required. To 
secure pure water, millions of dollars are expended on great 
engineering feats. 

511. Water Supply for Cities. The constantly increasing 
population of our cities has brought to a head the necessity 
of arranging for a better water supply. 

In 1895 the state of Massachusetts took steps to secure for 
Boston and adjacent cities a pure water supply for years to come. 
A commission was appointed to purchase extensive tracts of 
land near Mount Wachusett, fifty miles from Boston. Towns and 
villages were removed, a great dam erected, and an artificial 
lake, miles in extent, created. So successful was the work here 
that the idea spread rapidly to other parts of the country. 

For many years the city of Chicago secured its water from 
intakes far out in Lake Michigan. Since much of the sewage 
of Chicago was carried into Lake Michigan by the Chicago 
River, it was difficult to keep the lake water free from 
impurities. A brilliant engineering suggestion -was made. As 
a very slight elevation of land — about fifteen feet — formed 
the watershed between the Chicago River flowing east into 
Lake Michigan and the Des Plaines River flowing southwest 
into the Illinois River, it was proposed to cut a canal forty 
miles in length and sufficiently deep to cause the Chicago 
River to run westward into the Des Plaines, which would 
carry the water into the Illinois and thence into the Mississippi, 
In this way the waters of Lake Michigan would flow westward 
through the Chicago River in a strong current, carrying the 



'I'liK rxiri-:!) siai'ks as a woki.d i'owi.k 447 

sewage with them into the Des Plaines and IlHnois Rivers, 
away from Lake Michigan. The plan was carried to a success- 
ful finish in 1906. Eventually the canal may form a waterway 
for barges and vessels from Chicago to the (iulf of Mexico. 

The city of Los Angeles has built an aqueduct two hundred 
and fourteen miles long, carrying from the mountains into the 
city an unlimited quantity of the purest water. The flowing 
stream can also be utilized to develop water power which will 
furnish electric light and traction. 

The greatest engineering feat in connection with the water 
supply of a great city is the Catskill Aqueduct for New York, 
The Aqueduct extends one hundred and twenty-seven miles 
to the furthest point. Four miles above West Point it is led 
through solid granite under the Hudson River at a dci)th of 
one thousand one hundred feet. By means of tunnels the water 
is carried far underground to all parts of the city. The Catskill 
Aqueduct is second only to the Panama Canal as one of the 
world's greatest engineering projects and is the greatest water- 
works system in the history of the world, ancient or modern. 

512. The Growth of Electric Traction. The increasing use of 
tunnels and the public demand for purer air is bringing about 
the change from coal locomotives to electric motors on railroads. ' 

The New York Central Railroad has already changed to 
electric traction on its main line from New York City north- 
ward. The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad 
uses electric motors on a long stretch of its system. The 
Pennsylvania Railroad, in its great tunnel under the Hudson 
River, uses only electric power. One of the greatest steps for- 
ward in the change to electricity is the electrical equipment of 
the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad through the 
Rockies. The mountain torrents and swift rivers furnish the 
electric power. The largest electric motors in the world have 
been installed upon the system, and for hundreds of miles the 
trains are carried over mountain ranges by the clean, smokeless 
electric motors. 



448 



ESSENTIALS OE AMERICAN HISTORY 



513. The Panama Expositions. To celebrate the opening 
of the Panama Canal two expositions were held in 1 9 1 5 on the 
Pacific coast. The Panama-California Exposition was opened 
at San Diego, where the great explorer Cabrillo first landed. 
As was fitting, the buildings were in the style of the Spanish 




THE FIRST THREE-THOUSAND-VOLT DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVE 

More powerful than any steam locomotive ; one hundred and twelve feet long, weighs 

two hundred and sixty tons, uses no coal, requires no water, has no boiler, and carries 

no tender 



missions, in recognition of the early Franciscan missionaries 
who here began to Christianize and civilize the Indians. 

The Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. 
For two miles along the water front near the Golden Gate the 
beautiful buildings extended, covering six hundred and thirty- 
five acres. Exhibits from all parts of the world showed the 
marvelous progress that has been made in recent years in all 
lines of human activity. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 449 

514. Development of the Automobile Industry. One of the 
most remarkable commercial developments of the last fifteen 
years is the automobile industry. The automobile of to-day was 
rendered possible by the perfecting, in Europe, of the gasoline 
motor. Hie automobile industry in the United States was of 
comparatively slow growth at the outset, but in recent years 
automobile manufacturing has increased enormously. Besides 
pleasure cars large gasoline motor trucks have been developed 
to carry great loads for which formerly many horses were re- 
quired. Gasoline tractors are being used more and more for 
plowing and harrowing on the great farms of the West, and 
motor boats are found on all our waters. The automobile has 
caused a general recognition of the need for good roads, which 
are now being built in all parts of the countr)'.i Among the 
many cities that have been especially benefited by the auto- 
mobile industry are Detroit, Cleveland, and Toledo. 

515. The New York Barge Canal. We have seen how 
largely the Erie Canal (see sect. 292) aided in building up the 
wonderful commerce of the state and city of New York by 
affording a direct waterway from the Hudson River to the 
Great Lakes. It was long evident, however, that the canal 
needed to be so enlarged as to carry barges of much greater 
capacity in order to meet the growing needs of commerce. At 
a cost of about one hundred and thirty million dollars the state 
of New York has enlarged the canal and its branches. The 
Barge Canal, as it is now called, with its branches, is almost 
eight hundred miles in length. 

' The agitation for good roads has led to the great undertakings known as 
the Lincoln Highway and the Dixie Highway. The Lincoln Highway, built 
in memory of President Lincoln, is to extend from New York to San Francisco, 
and when completed will be the longest road in the world. The Dixie High- 
way will connect some of the leading Northern cities with the growing cities 
of the South. As the great Roman highways joined and bound together the 
cities of Europe, these splendidly built new roads will facilitate quick com- 
munication, especially by automobile, between the East and the West, the 
North and the South, and will permit the quick movement of the products of 
the farms to the cities. 



450 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

516. The Record of American Inventions. Since the United 
States Patent Ofifice was established in 1791 American inven- 
tive genius has developed more great and useful inventions 
than all the rest of the w^orld combined. So fertile of new 
ideas is the American brain that no less than two hundred in- 
ventions a day are now patented in Washington. The following 
is a list of some of the epoch-making inventions since the 
foundation of the republic : 

Cotton gin Whitney, 1 793 

Steamboat Fulton, 1807 

Telegraph Morse, 1832 

Reaper and mower McCormick, 1834 

Revolver Colt, 1835 

Screw propeller Ericsson, 1836 

Vulcanized rubber Goodyear, 1844 

Sewing machine . Howe, 1846 

Steam cylinder press Hoe, 1847 

Typewriter Sholes and Glidden, 1866 

Air brake Westinghouse, 1 868 

Welt machine Goodyear, 1871 

Railway block signals Robinson, 1872 

Automatic car coupler Janney, 1873 

Barbed-wire machine Glidden, 1875 

Telephone Bell, 1876 

Talking machine Edison, 1878 

Electric-arc lamp Brush, 1879 

Incandescent lamp Edison, 1 880 

Trolley car . . . Van Depoele and Sprague, 1 884-1 887 

Cash register ... Patterson, 1885 

Linotype machine Mergenthaler, 1885 

Induction motor Tesla, 1887 

Portable roll-film camera Eastman, 1888 

Adding machine . . . ' Burroughs, 1888 

Aeroplane Wright, 1903 

517. The Mexican Civil War. In 19 10 a rebellion, under 
Francisco Madero, broke out in Mexico against the president, 
Porfirio Diaz. Diaz was compelled to leave the country, 
and Madero was elected president. One year later he was 



THK I'Xri'KI) STATES AS A WORLD POWER 451 

overthrown and, with the vice president, was murdered. Huerta ^ 
now took possession of the government, but revolutionary 
armies arose on every side. He asked for recognition by the 
United States, but it was refused, and he was finally compelled 
to resign. Carranza, as " first chief," became the ruling power, 
but the country w^as still ravaged by different armies. Churches, 
convents, and homes were pillaged, and the inhabitants mur- 
dered or grossly maltreated. In 1916 peace was, to a certain 
extent, restored in Mexico. 

518. Legislation to aid the Farmer. One of the most far- 
reaching and beneficial laws of recent years is the Federal 
Farm Loan Act, or Rural Credits Act as it is frequently 
called. As almost everything we eat and much of what we 
wear comes from the soil, it is very important that agriculture 
should be efficient and prosperous. A century ago in the 
United States, of every one hundred persons in our population 
eighty were on the farms producing food for the twenty per- 
sons who lived in cities or did not produce foodstuffs in any 
form. Under these conditions food was plentiful and cheap. 
With the growth of the cities and the gradual drift to them 
of young men and women from the farms, a great change has 
been brought about. To-day of every hundred of our popula- 
tion only thirty-seven are on the farms, and sixty-three live in 
the cities. The result is ever-increasing prices for food. 

519. Federal Farm Loan Act. Other Progressive Legisla- 
tion. The new Federal Farm Loan Act (July 17, 19 16) was 
designed to aid the farmer. It established a board of five 
members and divided the country into tw^elve F'ederal districts. 
Each of these districts has a Federal Land Bank. Under the 
act farmers organized into local credit unions, and through 
these unions loans are secured from the Federal Land Bank. 

As a valuable aid to the Farm Loan Act two other laws have 
been passed to assist the farmer, who is the food producer 
of the nation. The Good Roads Law gives Federal aid in 

' Huerta (ware'tah). 



452 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

building good roads and thereby draws closer together the farm 
and the market. The act increases the value of the farm and 
reduces the operating expenses of the farmer. The Agri- 
cultural Education Act provides a means for the Federal 
government to act with the states in the scientific education 
of the farmer. This will enable him to produce more on each 
acre and to increase the number of acres under cultivation. 
All these acts show that the farmer is now receiving the 
fullest consideration in all matters of national legislation. 

520. The Federal Child Labor Law. Eight-Hour Railroad 
Law. In 191 6 the Federal Child Labor Law was passed to 
give the fullest protection to children working in mills, shops, 
factories, canneries, or mines, but it has been declared (19 18) 
to be unconstitutional. 

In the summer of 19 16 a nation-wide strike on all our 
railways was averted by the Adamson Eight- Hour Railroad 
Law which sought by act of Congress to adjust the hours of 
labor and wages to be paid. The brotherhoods accepted the 
action of Congress as a satisfactory solution of the problem, and 
the nation-wide railway strike, with its appalling consequences, 
was averted. 

521. Growth of Woman Suffrage. An important movement 
in political life has been the rapidly increasing growth of 
woman suffrage. This movement was preceded by a general 
widening of all spheres of activity for women. Many uni- 
versities and colleges that were formerly closed to women 
were opened to them, and many colleges solely for women 
were established. Women have now been admitted to most of 
the professions, and new laws have given them rights to prop- 
erty which they have never before enjoyed. 

The movement for suffrage for women began in the West. 
Kansas gave them the right to vote on school matters as early 
as 1861. Wyoming gave them full suffrage in 186.9 01^ equal 
terms with men ; Colorado followed in 1893 ; Idaho and Utah 
in 1896 ; and Washington, California, Arizona, Kansas, Oregon, 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 453 

Nevada, Montana, and the territory of Alaska followed. In 
Illinois they have partial suffrage. In 191 7 the state of New 
York gave them full suffrage. 

522. The Election of 1916. In the presidential election of 
19 1 6 the Democrats renominated President Woodrow Wilson 
and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall. The Republicans 
nominated Charles E. Hughes for president and Charles W. 
Fairbanks for vice president. The leading issues of the cam- 
paign were the progressive legislation of the Wilson adminis- 
tration and the peace and prosperity of the country. In the 
election the Democrats were successful and President Wilson 
and Vice President Marshall were reelected. 

SUMMARY 

The leading events of Wilson's first administration (19 13-19 17) 
were : 

The addition (19 13) to the Constitution of the Sixteenth and 
Seventeenth Amendments. 

The creation (19 13) of the Department of Labor with a seat in 
the cabinet. 

The Underwood Tariff Act of 19 13. 

The passage of the Federal Reserve Currency Act. 

The building of great industrial works — the Keokuk Dam and 
the Cape Cod Canal. 

The completion of the Panama Canal in 19 14. 

The passage of the Panama Tolls Act. 

Legislation to develop the wonderful resources of Alaska. 

•The Clayton Anti -Trust Act and Federal Trade Commission Law. 

The development of new political movements — the Initiative, 
Referendum, Recall, and Direct Primar)-. 

The expositions of 1 9 1 5 at San Francisco and San Diego. 

The Mexican Civil War. 

Enactment of the Income Tax Law. 

The Federal Farm Loan Act, Good Roads Law, Agricultural Edu- 
cadon Act, Federal Child Labor. Law, and Eight-Hour Labor Law. 

The rapid growth of woman suffrage. 



454 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Wilson's Second Administration (191 7- ) 

523. The Parcel Post and Airplane Post. Although foreign 
governments in their postal systems had for years cared for 
the transportation of merchandise, up to a certain weight, the 
Congress of the United States did not pass a parcel-post law 
until 191 3, owing largely to the opposition of the express com- 
panies. The law allows packages up to a considerable weight 
to be transported by the postal authorities. 

In May, 191 8, the postal system was enlarged by the intro- 
duction of an airplane service between leading cities. 

524. Protectorates in the Caribbean. Purchase of the Virgin 
Islands. The Panama Canal has made the region of the 
Caribbean of the greatest importance, as through these waters 
lies the direct route to and from the canal. ^ Among the 
islands that fringe the Caribbean is the large island of Haiti, 
the western portion of which is the republic of Haiti and the 
eastern portion the republic of Santo Domingo. President 
Grant in 1869 had tried by treaty to annex Santo Domingo, 
but the United States Senate refused to confirm the treaty. 
Revolutions occurred frequently, until in 1907 the United States 
by treaty took over the financial direction of the republic. We 
collect the revenues and pay the creditors, who are especially 
numerous in France. A similar arrangement has been neces- 
sary in Haiti, where a revolution in 191 5 overthrew the rulers 

1 To put an end to the revolutions directed by dictators in Latin-America, 
President Wilson in an epoch-making address at Mobile announced to all 
Latin-America that the United States would never again recognize any gov- 
ernment founded on assassination and revolution. Without the recognition 
of the United States it would be practically impossible for dictators to sell 
bonds and secure money. It is therefore significant that since this Mobile 
address there have been few dictators arising in Latin-America. President 
Wilson also assured the republics of Latin-America that the L^nited States 
would never again seize a foot of territory belonging to them. This policy, 
and the invitation to Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (the famous A. B. C. con- 
ference at Niagara Falls in 1913) to confer for the settlement of the Mexican 
trouble, has allayed on the part of the Latin republics the feeling of fear of 
the United States arising largely from our part in waging the war against 
Mexico and our share in the Panama revolution. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 455 



of the republic. To protect lives and property the United 
States has since had charge of its financial and police affairs. 
In accordance with this policy of guarding Caribbean inter- 
ests, the United States purchased in 19 17 from Denmark for 
twenty-five million dollars the Danish West Indies, or Virgin 
Islands, situated a short distance northeast of Porto Rico. 




IH. Ur,giu.d. VTat 



THE LXITKD STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS (SHADED AND liLACK AREAS) 

This gives the United States ownership of the excellent harbor 
of St. Thomas and prevents the islands from falling into the 
hands of any hostile European power. 

525. The Great War. The war which all Europe had been 
fearing for decades came at last in 19 14. On June 28 of that 
year the Crown Prince of Austria and his wife were murdered 
in Bosnia^ as the result, it was claimed, of a Serbian conspiracy. 

' The Halkan states of Bosnia and Herzegovina had been annexed by 
Austria in 190.S. Serbia had hoped to unite these and other Balkan Slav prin- 
cipalities to herself and form a great Serbian state. The action of Austria 
aroused great resentment in Serbia. The Archduke Francis Ferdinand, 
Crown Prince of Austria, was warned not to go to Sarajevo, the capital of 
Bosnia, because of the intense hatred of Austria which many there held, but 
he disregarded the warning and on his arrival was assassinated (June 28, 1914). 



456 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

On July 23, 19 14, Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia. 
Although if she had accepted it, it would have practically ended 
her national life, Serbia agreed to all the severe conditions except 
one and she asked to have that referred to the Hague Tribunal. 
Austria refused and at once declared war (July 28) on Serbia. 
Russia immediately prepared to go to the aid of Serbia, Ger- 
many was in alliance ^ with Austria and came to the aid of 
Austria by declaring war (August i) on Russia. As France 
was allied to Russia, war was declared on France by Germany 
(August 3). To crush France at once Germany attempted to 
pass through Belgium, a neutral country. The Belgians resisted 
and for a few days held the Germans in check, — long enough 
to allow the French armies to be gathered. The attack on 
Belgium brought England into the war against Germany. The 
Great War now became a world catastrophe. 

526. The United States and the Great War. On August 18. 
1914, President Wilson issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
asking the people of the United States to "act and speak in 
the true spirit of neutrality." It was thought that the United 
States, separated by three thousand miles of ocean, would not 
be drawn into the great conflict. The close relations, however, 
of nations to-day in world affairs, the ships sailing daily from 
shore to shore, the cables and wireless sending messages from 
people to people, the need of munitions and foodstuffs by the 
warring countries, soon made it evident that it would be very 
difficult for the United States to keep out of the war. As soon 
as war was declared. Great Britain, with its vast navy, blockaded 
the coast of Germany and no German vessel could leave a 
harbor anywhere without danger of capture. So strict became 
this blockade that even neutral vessels were searched, which 

1 An alliance had been formed between Germany, Austria, and Italy as 
early as 1882. It was called the Triple Alliance. France and Russia made 
an alliance in 1891 and were joined by Great Britain in 1904, forming the 
Triple Entente, now generally called the Allies. Italy claimed its alliance 
was merely for defensive war while this was an aggressive war. She refused 
to aid the Triple Alliance and finally (May 23, 191 5) joined the Allies. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 457 

led to a vigorous protest to England by the President of the 
United States as being a violation of international law. Ger- 
many retaliated to the decree of Great Britain by developing a 
powerful fleet of submarines, which sped forth unobserved, 
armed with the deadly torpedo, and attacked neutral vessels as 
well as those of their enemies. 

On May 7, 191 5, to the horror and amazement of the world 
the large English passenger steamer the Liisita7iia\^2,% torpedoed, 
without warning, by a submarine off the coast of Ireland with a 
loss of eleven hundred and fifty-two lives, among them being 
many women and children. Of the lost one hundred and four- 
teen were American citizens. Scores of merchant vessels fell 
a prey to the active German submarine. President Wilson 
protested to Germany against this method of submarine warfare 
wherein the lives of passengers and crews could not be safe- 
guarded as required by international law. On September i , 1 9 1 5 , 
Germany gave her pledge that her submarines would not sink 
liners "without warning and without providing for the safety of 
the lives of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not try to 
escape or offer resistance." Early in 191 7 England extended 
the lines of her blockade, the more effectively to cut off supplies 
from Germany. Germany issued (Januar}' 31, 19 17) a new proc- 
lamation extending the war zone ^ and declaring that every 
ship without regard to its character or the safety of those on 
board would be sunk. The United States was to be permitted 
to send one boat a week, properly marked, to Falmouth, Eng- 
land, upon a certain specified route. Declaring this proclama- 
tion to be a breach of the earlier pledge of Germany and a 
violation of the law of nations and the principles of humanity, 
President Wilson gave the German ambassador, Count von 
Hernstorff, his passports (February 3, 191 7). 

1 Two weeks earlier the German Foreign Secretary Zimmerman had 
written a letter to the German Minister in Mexico which was intercepted. 
This letter suggested that if war was declared between Germany and the 
United States, Mexico might join with Japan in attacking the United States 
and would receive as a reward Arizona. New Mexico, and Texas. 



458 ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

527. Declaration of War, April 6, 1917. After two months of 
unrestricted submarine warfare I^resident Wilson went before 
Congress (April 2, 19 17) and in the course of his address said : 

The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Vessels of 
every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their 
destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom 
without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on 
board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents. 
Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved 
and stricken people of Belgium . . . have been sunk with the 
same reckless lack of compassion or of principle. . . . The world 
must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon 
the tested foundations of political liberty. 

In response to the President's request Congress declared war 
on Germany (April 6, 1917).^ For the first time since the 
War of 1 8 1 2 the United States became involved in war with 
a first-class power. 

528. The United States at War. The United States at once 
prepared for the great struggle. Conscription was voted 
(May, 19 1 7) and ten million men between the ages of twenty- 
one and thirty inclusive were registered. From this body an 
army was drawn by lot. Immense cantonments were con- 
structed, munition factories developed, supplies in untold quan- 
tities prepared, the navy placed in a condition of complete 
preparedness, airplanes manufactured, and enormous ship- 
building plants erected. The government took charge of all 
the railroads of the country. Administrators of food and fuel 
were appointed to fix prices and control distribution. Congress 
voted billions of dollars for war expenses, and the people 
through Liberty Loans poured a stream of money into the 
national treasury .^ So effective were all these measures that 

1 See Leonard, War Addresses of Woodrow Wilson. 

War on Austria-Hungary was not declared until December 7, 1917. 

2 The four departments of State, Treasury, War, and Navy in these 
critical days of war were under the efficient direction of Secretaries Lansing, 
McAdoo, Baker, and Daniels. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 459 

the development of the United States from a peace-loving nation 
at peace to a nation at war was accomplished with a success 
unsurpassed in history. By the summer of 19 18 more than 
one million men with supplies had been safely transported 
across three thousand miles of ocean infested with German 
submarines and were on the firing line in France under 
(jcneral John J. Pershing. On September 12, 19 18, the 
registration for war of all males between the ages of eighteen 
and forty-five was ordered, and thirteen million responded 
throughout the Union, On the same day the news reached 
the United States that the American army had begun its drive 
at St. Mihiel, resulting in a brilliant victory for our arms. In 
the relief of the soldiers and sailors at home and abroad 
the Red Cross/ the Young Men's Christian Association, the 
Knights of Columbus, the Young Men's Hebrew Association, 
and the Salvation Army have done valiant work. The nation, 
united for a common purpose, has put forth its every endeavor 
to bring success to its cause. 

529. The Great War nears its End. With the arrival of 
fresh troops from the United States the Allies took renewed 
courage. By the autumn of 19 18 two million men had poured 
into Europe from the United States, These soldiers took up 
an important section of the great line on the western front. 
In the meantime the English had been driving ahead in Asia 
Minor, capturing the historic cities of Jerusalem, Damascus, 
and Aleppo. 

For some months the Germans, Austrians, Bulgarians, and 
Turks had been sending repeated appeals for peace terms to 

^ The Red Cross was founded in Geneva. Switzerland, in 1S64, by repre- 
sentatives of many European nations, to care for wounded and sick soldiers. 
Clara Barton organized an American branch and extended its work to include 
relief not only for the victims of war but also for those involved in great 
calamities. Besides its work in the Great War, the American Society did 
splendid work in the Spanish-American War, and has rendered invaluable aid 
in disasters, as those of Johnstown, Galveston, and San Francisco, and in 
epidemics, as the yellow fever of New Orleans. 



46o ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

President Wilson. The President informed them that no terms 
would even be presented by him to the Allies unless invaded 
territories were evacuated, the superior military strength of 
the Allies maintained, and governments set up that, in the 
belief of the Allies, would respect treaties. In June, 191 8, 
Austria began a widespread attack on the Italian line, but was 
defeated at the Piave River. The Bulgarians were attacked, 
three months later, with great vigor from the south. Seeing 
the hopelessness of her condition, Bulgaria surrendered (Sep- 
tember 30, 19 1 8). The great alliance which had held un- 
broken the battle line for the Central Powers from Ostend to 
Constantinople began to fall to pieces. 

530. The End of the War. Hemmed in on all sides, Turkey 
yielded to the Allies (October 31, 1918). Austria, torn by 
internal strife and defeated by Italy, gave up the struggle 
(November 4, 191 8). Germany now stood alone. With the 
Allies pressing on without cessation day or night, she realized 
it was impossible to continue the struggle. She sent a dele- 
gation to Marshal Foch, asking for an armistice. The terms 
offered were accepted and Germany surrendered (November 1 1 , 
19 1 8). The kaiser gave up his throne and fled to Holland. 
The Great War was over, and arrangements were at once 
begun for the final treaty of peace. 



When Columbus, with the spirit of a Crusa'der, landed in 
the New World, broad and noble as his vision was, he could 
never have dreamed of the wondrous epoch he was opening in 
the world's history. These pages have given merely a glimpse 
of what has since been achieved, — - the conquest of the wilder- 
ness, the establishment of the colonies, the winning of the 
Revolution and the founding of the republic with a written 
constitution, the increase in the number of the stars in the flag, 
and the westward expansion until the whole territory from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific was under the rule of the great Republic 



THE I'XrrED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 461 

of the West. We have seen the small states develop into great 
commonwealths, the manufacturing industry grow to magnifi- 
cent proportions, the mines pour out their wealth of gold and 
silver and coal and iron, our commerce expand upon every 
sea, and the railroads spread their network of steel over the 
whole country. While most of the republics of history have 
been small, the United States of America has proved that the 
democratic form of government can be successful on a scale 
large beyond all precedent. During these years we have seen 
developed the spirit of liberty ^- liberty to act within the bounds 
of the civil and moral law and liberty to worship according to 
the dictates of one's conscience. 

The great problems before the people of the present century 
are the development and conservation of natural resources, 
solicitude for the health and well-being of the community, 
the maintenance of a high standard of living and education, 
and the nurturing of lofty ideals of political morality. These 
are a few of the problems that must be solved by the future 
citizens of the nation. 



APPENDIX 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ' 
In Congress, July 4, 1776 

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UXITEI) 
STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMI5LE1) 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and 
to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect 
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes 
which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created equal; 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that 
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure 
these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just 
powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of gov- 
ernment becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to 
alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation 
on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will 
dictate, that governments long established should not be changed for light 
and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown that man- 
kind are more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right 
themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when 
a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, 
it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for 
their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; 
and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former 
systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is 

1 The original copy of the Declaration of Independence is kept in the Department 
of State in Washington. The Declaration was adopted July 4, 1776, and was signed by 
the members representing the thirteen states .\ugust 2, 1776. John Hancock, whose 
name appears first among the signers, was president of the Congress. 



ii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the 
establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let 
facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for 
the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly' neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts 
of people, unless thos^ people would relinquish the right of representation in 
the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, 
and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose 
of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly 
firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to 
be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have 
returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in 
the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and 
.convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of 
new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to 
laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the 
civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our 
constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their 
acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; • 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE iii 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundarie.s, so 
as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same 
absolute rule into these colonies ; 

P"or taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, 
fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 

lie has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, buined our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com- 
plete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circum- 
stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, 
and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to 
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends 
and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to 
bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose 
known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, 
and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the 
most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by 
repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which 
may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of 
the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed 
to their native justice and magnanimity ; and we have conjured them, by the 
ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would 
inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have 
been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, 
acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, 
as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in 
General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of 
the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That these 
united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; 
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 



iv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought 
to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have 
full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. 
And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection 
of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed 
by the following members : 

JOHN HANCOCK 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 
JOSI.A.H Bartlett 
William Whipple 
Matthew Thornton 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY 
Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 

RHODE ISLAND 
Stephen Hopkins 
William Ellery 

CONNECTICUT 
Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
W^iLLiAM Williams 
Oliver Wolcott 

NEW YORK 
William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 



NEW JERSEY 
Richard Stockton 
John Witherspoon 
Francis Hopkinson 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

PENNSYLYANIA 
Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Clymer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

DELAWARE 
C.T.SAR Rodney 
George Read 
Thomas M'Kean 

MARYLAND 
Samuel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 



Charles Carroll, of 
Carrollton 

VIRGINIA 
George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harrison 
Thomas Nelson, Jr. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 

NORTH CAROLINA 
William Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

SOUTH CAROLINA 
Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Hayward, Jr. 
Thomas Lynch, Jr. 

ARTHUJi MiDDLETON 

GEORGIA 
Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 



Kesoh'ed, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, 
conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several com- 
manding officers of the continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each of 
the United States, at the head of the army. 



CONSTITUTIOX DF THE UNITED STATES 

I'KKAMIJLK 

\Vk, the people of the Inited States, in order to form a more perfect union, 
estabUsh justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, 
promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United 
States of America. 

ARTICLE I. LE(;iSLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

ShXTiox I. Congress 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 
United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.' 

Section 2. Hoi'se of Representatives 

Election of Members. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and 
the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors 
of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Qualifications. No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
State in which he shall be chosen. 

Apportionment. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their 
respective numbers,- which shall be determined by adding to the whole num- 
ber of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and 
excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.' The actual 

1 The term of each Congress is two years. It assembles on the first Monday in 
December and " expires at noon of the fourth of March next succeeding the beginning 
of its second regular session, when a new Congress begins." 

2 The apportionment under the census of 1910 is one representative for ever>- 212.407 
persons. 

3 The word " persons " refers to slaves. The word " slave " nowhere appears in the 
Constitution. This paragraph has been amended (.Amendments XHI and .XIV) and 
is no longer in force. 



vi ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the 
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of repre- 
sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State 
shall have at least one representative : and until such enumeration shall be 
made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massa- 
chusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, 
five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; 
Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; 
and Georgia, three. 

Vacancies. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
executive authority^ thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

Officers. Impeachment. The House of Representatives shall choose their 
Speaker- and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section 3. Senate 

Number of Senators : Election. The Senate of the United States shall be 
composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, 
for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. [Repealed in 1913 by 
Amendment XVIL] 

Classification. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration 
of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year; 
of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be 
chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other- 
wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive ^ thereof 
may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, 
which shall then fill such vacancies. 

Qualifications. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he 
shall be chosen. 

President of Senate. The Vice-President of the United States shall be presi- 
dent of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

Officers. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president 
pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

Trials of Impeachment. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im- 
peachments : When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 

1 Governor. 

2 The Speaker, who presides, is one of the representatives ; the other officers — clerk, 
sergeant-at-arms, postmaster, chaplain, doorkeeper, etc. — are not. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES vu 

When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall 
preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two- 
thirds of the members present. 

Judgment in Case of Conviction. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall 
not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold 
and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the 
party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

SixTiox 4. Both Houses 

Manner of electing Members. The times, places, and manner of holding elec- 
tions for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or 
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.^ 

Meetings of Congress. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 
year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

Sf.ctiox 5. The Houses separately 

Organization. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a 
quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, 
and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such 
manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 

Rules. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, 
expel a member. 

Journal. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require 
secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question 
shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

Adjournment. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Si-.cTioM G. run-iLEfiEs Axn Disabilities of Members 

Pay and Privileges of Members. The senators and representatives shall 
receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid 
out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 

1 This is to prevent Congress from fixing the places of meeting of the state legislatures. 



viii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they 
shall not be questioned in any other place. 

Prohibitions on Members. No senator or representative shall, during the 
time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the au- 
thority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding 
any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

Section 7. Method of passing Laws 

Revenue Bills. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as 
on other bills. 

How Bills become Laws. Every bill which shall have passed the House of 
Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented 
to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if 
not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and pro- 
ceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house 
shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the 
other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by 
two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes 
of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the 
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal'of each 
house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within 
ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the 
same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress 
by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Resolutions, etc. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or 
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed 
in the case of a bill. 

Section 8. Powers granted to Congress 

Powers of Congress. The Congress shall have power : 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and 
provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States ; but 
all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, 
and with the Indian tribes; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the 
subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the 
standard of weights and measures ; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current 
coin of the I'nited States ; 

To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited 
times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, 
and offenses against the law of nations ; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal,^ and make rules con- 
cerning captures on land and water ; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use 
shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, 
suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for gov- 
erning such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United 
States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, 
and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed 
by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district 
(not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and 
the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United 
States,- and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the con- 
sent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection 
of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; — And 

Implied Powers. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by 
this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department 
or officer thereof.^ 

1 Letters granted by the government to private citizens in time of war, authorizing 
them, under certain conditions, to capture the ships of the enemy. 

2 The District of Columbia. 

* This is the famous elastic clause of the Constitution. 



X ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Section 9. Powers forbidden to the United States 

Absolute Prohibitions on Congress. The migration or importation of such 
persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall 
not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hun- 
dred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each person. 1 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus- shall not be suspended, unless 
when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 

No bill of attainder 3 or ex-post-facto law* shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the 
census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to 
the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or 
from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appro- 
priations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts 
and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no person 
holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of 
the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind 
whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 



Section 10. Powers forbidden to the States 

Absolute Prohibitions on the States. No State shall enter into any treaty, 
alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; 
emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in pay- 
ment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing 
the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

Conditional Prohibitions on the States. No State shall, without the consent 
of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what 
may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net 
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, 

1 This refers to the foreign slave trade. "Persons" means "slaves." In 1808 
Congress prohibited the importation of slaves. This clause is, of course, no longer 
in force. 

- An official document requiring an accused person who is in prison awaiting trial to 
be brought into court to inquire whether he may be legally held. 

3 A special legislative act by which a person may be condemned to death or to out- 
lawry or banishment without the opportunity of defending himself which he would have 
in a court of law. 

4 A law relating to the punishment of acts committed before the law was passed. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi 

shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws 
shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, 
keep troops, or ships-of-war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or 
compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 



ARTICLE II. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 
Sectio.x I. President .and \'k r:-PKEsii)p:NT 

Term. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, 
together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as 
follows : 

Electors. ICach State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and 
representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no 
senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under 
the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

Proceedings of Electors and of Congress. [^ The electors shall meet in their 
respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; 
which list they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. 
The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House 
of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the Presi- 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal 
number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose 
by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the five highest on the list the said house shall, in like manner, choose 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In 
every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest 
number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there 
should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose 
from them by ballot the Vice-President.] 

1 This paragraph in brackets has been superseded by the Twelfth .Amendment. 



xii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Time of choosing Electors. The Congress may determine the time of choos- 
ing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day 
shall be the same throughout the United States. ^ 

Qualifications of President. No person except a natural born citizen, or a 
citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible 
to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years resident within the United States. 

Vacancy. In case of the removal of. the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may 
by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both 
of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as 
President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be 
removed, or a President shall be elected.^ 

Salary. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period 
for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that 
period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Oath. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will 
faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the 
best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Section- 2. Powers of the President 

Military Powers ; Reprieves and Pardons. The President shall be commander- 
in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the 
several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he 
may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the ex- 
ecutive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and paj-dons for offenses 
against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

Treaties ; Appointments. He shall have power, by and with the advice and 
consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 

1 The electors are chosen on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November, 
preceding the expiration of a presidential term. They vote (by Act of Congress of Feb- 
ruary 3, 1SS7) on the second Monday in January for President and Vice-President. 
The votes are counted, and declared in Congress on the second Wednesday of the 
following February. 

- This has now been provided for by the Presidential Succession .\ct of 18S6. 



coxsTiru riox of the uxiti:u states xiii 

States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and whicli 
shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appoint- 
ment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the I'resident alone, in 
the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

Filling of Vacancies. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Sectio.x 3. Duties of the President 

Message; Convening of Congress. He shall from time to time give to the 
Congress mlormation 1 of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con- 
sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, 
on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in 
case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive 
ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be 
faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section 4. Impeachment 

Removal of Officers. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and 
conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

Section i. United States Courts 

Courts established ; Judges. The judicial power of the United States shall 
be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at 
stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be 
diminished during their continuance in office. 

Section 2. Jurisdiction of United States Courts 

Federal Courts in General. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in 
law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to all casCs 

1 The president gives this information through a message to Congress at the open- 
ing of each session. Washington and John Adams read their messages in person to 
Congress. Jefferson, however, sent a written message to Congress. This method was 
followed until President Wilson returned to the earlier custom. 



xiv ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; — to all cases of 
admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United 
States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States;- — 
between a State and citizens of another State ; ^ - — between citizens of different 
States; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of 
different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, 
citizens or subjects. 

Supreme Court. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the 
Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with 
such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

Trials. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have 
been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be 
at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Section 3. Treason 

Treason defined. Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid 
and comfort. 

No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two 
witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

Punishment. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, 
except during the life of the person attainted. 



ARTICLE IV. RELATIONS OF THE STATES TO EACH OTHER 

Section i. Official Acts 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the p'ublic acts, records, 
and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by gen- 
eral laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings 
shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section 2. Privileges of Citizens 

The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities 
of citizens in the several States. 

Fugitives from Justice. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, 
or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 

1 This has been modified by the Eleventh Amendment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv 

shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he 
fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of 
the crime. 

Fugitive Slaves. \o person ' hold to service or labor in one State, under 
the laws thereof, escapinj^ into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 



Section 3. New States and Territories 

Admission of States. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 
of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more 
States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the 
States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

Territory and Property of United States. The Congress shall have power to 
dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory 
or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Con- 
stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, 
or of any particular State. 



Section' 4. Protection of the States 

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican 
form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on 
application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature 
cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 



ARTICLE V. AMENDMENTS 

How proposed; how ratified. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both 
houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitu- 
tion, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several 
States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, 
when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratifica- 
tion may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which 

1 " Person " here includes slave. This was the basis of the Fugitive Slave Laws of 
I7Q3 and 1850. It is now superseded by the Thirteenth .Amendment, by which slavery 
is prohibited. 



XVI ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in 
any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first 
article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. GENERAL PROVISIONS 

Public Debt. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

Supremacy of Constitution. This Constitution, and the laws of the United 
States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the 
supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound 
thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

Official Oath ; Religious Test. The senators and representatives before men- 
tioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive 
and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall 
be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious 
test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under 
the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 

Ratification. The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be 
sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so 
ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. ^ 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
Presidetit, and Deputy from Virginia. 

1 There were sixty-five delegates chosen to the convention : ten did not attend : six- 
teen declined or failed to sign ; thirty-nine signed. Rhode Island sent no delegates. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES x\ 

NEW HAMPSHIRE I'ENNSVLVANIA \ IK(;iMA 

John Langdon Benjamin Franklin John Blaik 

.Nicholas Oilman Thomas Mifflin James Madison, Jr. 

Robert Morris 

MASSACHUSETTS George Clymer 

^ „ NORTH CAROLINA 
Nathaniel Gorham Thomas Fitzsimons 

RuKis King Jared Ingersoll William Hlolm 

James Wilson Rhharo Douhs Spaigi 

CONNECTICUT GorvERNEUR Morris IItgh Williamson 

Wii.i.iAM Sami-ki. Johnson DELAWARE 

RociR Shikm an George Read SOUTH CAROLINA 

Gi'NNiNG Bedford, J R 
NEW YORK John Dickinson 



John Rutledge 
„ „ Charles C. Pin( kney 

ALEXANDER HAMILTON ^'CHARD BaSSETT ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^.^^^ 

Jacob Broom 



Pierce Butler 



GEORGIA 



NEW JERSEY MARYLAND 
William Livingston James M'IIenry 
David Brearley Daniel of St. Thomas 
William Paterson Jenifer William Feu- 
Jonathan Dayton Daniel Carroll Abraham Baldwin 

AtU-st: WILLIAM JACKSON, iVrnr/ary 

AMENDMENTS 

Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, Petition. Article \y Congress shall 
make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free 
exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the 
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for 
redress of grievances. 

Militia. Article IL A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security 
of a free State the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. 

Soldiers. Article IIL No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in 
any house, without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 

Unreasonable Searches. Article IV. The right of the people to be secure 
in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches 
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon 

> These amendments were proposed by Congress and ratified by the legislatures of 
the several states, pursuant to the fifth article of the Constitution. The first ten were 
offered in 17S0 and adopted before the close of 1701. Thev were for the most p.irt the 
work of Madison. They are frequently called the Bill of Rights, as their purpose is to 
guard more efficiently the rights of the people and of the states. 



xviii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing 
the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Criminal Prosecutions. Article V. No person shall be held to answer for 
a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 
of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against him- 
self, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; 
nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been 
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of 
the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have 
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the 
assistance of counsel for his defense. 

Suits at Common Law. Article VII. In suits at common law, where the 
value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall 
be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any 
court of the United States than according to the rules of common law. 

Bail, Punishments. Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, 
nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Reserved Rights and Powers. Article IX. The enumeration in the Con- 
stitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others 
retained by the people. 

Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Consti- 
tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

Suits against States. Article XI. ^ The judicial power of the United 
States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced 
or prosecuted against any of the United States by citizens of another State, or 
by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

Method of electing President and Vice-President. Article XII.- The electors 
shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and 
Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for 
as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; 
and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of 
all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, 
which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — 

1 Proposed in 1794 ; adopted in 1798. 2 Adopted in 1S04. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xix 

the president of the Sf;nate shall, in the presence of the Senate and Mouse of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; 
— the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having 
the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of 
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, 
then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest 
number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have 
a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds 
of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. Kut no person constitutionally ineligible to the office 
of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

Slavery abolished. Article XIII.^ Section i. Neither slavery nor involun- 
tary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall 
have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place 
subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sirtion 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

Negroes made Citizens. Article XIV.2 Section i. All persons born or 
naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are 
citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State 
shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immuni- 
ties of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person 
of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person 
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons 
in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any 
election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the 
United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers 
of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the 
male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of 

1 .\dopted in 1S65. 2 Adopted in 186S. 



XX ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebel- 
lion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the 
proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section J. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or 
elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, 
under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an 
oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a 
member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any 
State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in 
insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the 
enemies thereof. But Congress may. by a vote of two-thirds of each house, 
remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity" of the public debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebeUion, shall not be questioned. 
But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or 
obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such 
debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section J. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- 
lation, the provisions of this article. 

Negroes made Voters. Article XV. ^ Section i. The rights of citizens of the 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or 
by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

Income Tax. Article XVI.'^ The Congress shall have power to lay and col- 
lect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived, without apportionment 
among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

Article XVII.'^ The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof for six years ; 
and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have 
the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
State Legislatures. 

Direct Election of Senators. When vacancies happen in the representation 
of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue 
writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided, that the Legislature of any 
State may empower the Executive thereof to make temporary appointments 
until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term 
of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 

1 Adopted in 1870. 2 Ratified in 19 13. 



DIGEST OF THE CONSTITUTION 



I. Congresses and 
acts that led to the i 
Constitution 



(I. New England Confederacy, 1643 

6. Leisler's American Congress, 1690 

tr. Albany Convention, 1754 

</. Stamp Act Congress, 1765 

e. Committees of Correspondence, 1773 

/. First Continental Congress, 1774 

.^,^ Second Continental Congress, 1773 

/;. Revolutionary government of the Continental Con- 
gress, 1775-1781 

/. Declaration of Independence, 1776 

J. Formation of state constitutions, 1776-1780 

/t. Articles of Confederation adopted by Congress and 
referred to the states, 1777 

/. Articles of Confederation in effect, 17S1 

m. Annapolis Convention, 17S6 

>i. Constitutional Convention, 1787 



2. Defects of the 
Articles of Confed- 
eration that led to 
the Constitution 



3. Provisions of 
the Constitution , 
for the United 
States 



a. Lack of executive power 

No president to execute the laws 
6. Lack of a judiciary 

No national courts or judges 
c. Defective organization of Congress 

(1) A single house 

(2) Debates held in secret 

(3) Members elected and paid by the states 

(4) Each state might have seven members 

(5) Each state must have two members 

(6) Each state cast a single vote in Congress 

(7) Vote of nine states required to enact a law 
</. Lack of power of Congress over revenue 

(i) Congress had no power to raise revenue 
(2) Congress could not collect money by taxation 
c. Lack of power of Congress to regulate commerce 

(1) No freedom of trade between the states 

(2) In foreign trade some states wished free trade, 

others a protective tariff 

(3) States made selfish and unwise tariff laws 
/. Lack of power to enforce order 

Congress had no power over any army or militia 



House of Representatives 
Senate 



Legislat 



ive department -i J ( ^ 



Executive department : The president 

r (i) United States judges 

Judical department | ^^^ ^,^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



4. Provisions of 
the Constitution 
for the House of 
Representatives 



a. Manner of election : By the people of the states 

b. Term of office : Two years 

f ( I ) Twenty-five years of age 

c. Qualifications of J (2) Seven years a citizen of the 

members 1 United States 

1^ (3) Inhabitant of state where elected 
' (1) Among the states according to 
population 

(2) Not to exceed one for every 
30,000 population 

(3) Each state must have at least 
one representative 

c. Census every ten years 

/. Officers : House elects its own officers 

C (i) It originates revenue bills 
(2) It brings in charges of impeachment 

I (3) It elects the president if the Electoral 

[^ College fails to do so 



d. Apportionment 



Powers ■{ 



5. Provisions of 
the Constitution 
for the Senate 



(/. Qualifications of 
members 



Presiding officer 



a. Number : Two from each state 

b. Manner of election : By direct vote of the people 

c. Term of office : Six years 
(i) Thirty years of age 

(2) Nine years a citizen of the United 
States 

(3) Inhabitant of state where elected 
' (i) Vice president of the United 

States, who has no vote except 
in case of a tie 
(2) In absence of vice president 
Senate elects a presiding officer 
pro tempore (for the time being) 
' (i) Its consent necessary to the passage of bills 

(2) While it cannot originate revenue bills it 
does frequently amend them 

(3) It takes part in the appointing power by 
confirming or rejecting nominations of 
the ^president 

(4) It accepts or rejects treaties. Its approval 
necessary 

^ (5) It acts as a court to try cases of impeachment 



/. Powers 



6. Provisions of 
the Constitution 
for Congress 



Time of meeting 



Every year on first Monday 
December 



b. Quorum : Majority 

c. Each house determines its rule of procedure 

d. Each house keeps a journal 

e. Neither house may adjourn for more than three days 

without the consent of the other 
/. The method of passing laws 



DIGEST OF THE CONSTITUTION 



XXlll 



a. Lay and collect taxes, duties, imports, and excises 

b. Pay debts and provide for the common defense 

c. Borrow money 
ci. Regulate commerce 
c. Establish a rule of naturalization 
/. Pass laws on bankruptcy 

7. The Constitu- g. Coin money 
tion gives Con- ^ //. Punish counterfeiting 
grass power to /. Establish post offices and post roads 

j. Provide for copyrights and patents 
k. Declare war 
/. Raise and support armies 
m. Maintain a navy 

n. Pass laws necessary for carrying out the foregoing 
powers 



Prohibit the importation of slaves before iSo8 
8. The Constitu- | b. Suspend the writ of habeas corpus except in war 
tion forbids the \ c Pass bills of attainder or ex-post-facto laws 
United States to J. Lay an export duty 

{_ e. Grant titles of nobility 



9. The Constitu- 
tion forbids any 
state to 



Make a treaty, alliance, or confederation 

Grant letters of marque and reprisal 

Coin money or emit bills of credit 

Pass any bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law 

Pass any law impairing the obligation of contracts 

Grant any title of nobility 

Lay any duty of tonnage without consent of Congress 

Keep troops or ships of war, without consent of Congress, 

in time of peace 
Engage in war unless actually invaded 



( New states may be admitted 
10. The Constitu- I Every state shall have a Republican form of government 
tion provides that ] Amendments may be made 

1^ The Constitution shall be the supreme law of the land 



II. Provisions of 
the Constitution 
for the president 



a. Term of office : Four years 

b. Manner of elec- J By presidential electors chosen by 

tion \ the people of the several states 

(1) Natural-born citizen of the United 
States 

(2) Thirty-five years of age 

(3) Fourteen years resident in the 
l^ United States 



Qualifications 
for office 



d. Oath of office 



{•'■' 



3 support the Constitution of the 
United States 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



12. Provisions of 
the Constitution 
as to powers of 
the president 



r (i) Army 
a. Commander in J (2) Navy 

chief of I (3) Militia in the service of the 

^^ United States 

b. Reprieves and pardons, except in case of impeachment 
(i) Make treaties 

Ambassadors 
Ministers 
Consuls 
United States 
judges 
i^ Other officers 
r (i) Send messages to Congress 
I (2) Call extra sessions of Congress 
(/. Duties < (3) Receive ambassadors 
(4) Execute the laws 
(^ (5) Commission officers of the United States 



c. With consent of Senate < 



(2) Appoint 



13. Provisions of | 
the Constitution -^ 
for the Judiciary 



, . ^ , r By the president, with consent of the 

a. Appointment i o 
^^ \ Senate 

b. Number: Fixed by Congress 
1^ c. Term of office : During good behavior 



14. Provisions 
the Constitution 
for Federal courts |^ 



of r a. Supreme Court 
Dn \ h. In 



ferior courts which Congress may establish from time 
to time 



15. Cases tried in 
the United States \ 
courts 



a. Cases to which the Constitution and laws of the United 

States apply 

b. Cases affecting ambassadors, public ministers, consuls, or 

representatives of other nations in the United States 

c. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction 

(/. Cases to which the United States may be a party 
c. Cases between two or more states, between citizens of 
different states, between citizens of the same state 
claiming lands by grants of different states, between a 
state or its citizens and a foreign state or its citizens 



TABLE Ol- I'RESlllK.NI'S A.\D VICE I'RESlllENIS xxv 




11 e 



S 



SiS? 



C6 t^S 



ii <- 



E'jig 



lege 



g c c g S-t: c 13 
o >J3 h o n c o 



o -^ «j^ t^o «o o t^ 00 ooo 55 6 o o o 

OOCCOOOOOOOO » 00 00 0000 cc <r * o- o- 







1 II 1 ii|iiiiii III iiiiiii 111^ 

S ^S £ ^^B^SS^c^^s ii Mli^^M s 8-11 



■&« 






g| til a el I 1 1 II ii|g 



>H-;2;z- 



.2 ?.S S 

6 ■^c^ 




xxvi ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

TABLE OF STATES 



No. 


Name of State 


11 = 


,}. 

Mi 


No. 


Name of State 


S- H M 




I 


Delaware . . . 


1638 


17S7 


29 


Iowa 


1833 


1846 


2 


Pennsylvania 




16S3 


1787 


30 


Wisconsin . . 


1669 


1848 


3 


New Jersey . 




1617 


1787 


31 


California . . . 


1769 


1850 


4 


Georgia. . . 




173.3 


1788 


32 


Minnesota. . . 


1819 


1858 


5 


Connecticut . 




1633 


1788 


33 


Oregon .... 


iSii 


1859 


6 


Massachusetts 




1620 


1788 


34 


Kansas .... 


1854 


1861 


7 


Maryland . . 




1634 


1788 


35 


West Virginia . 




1863 


8 


South Carolina 




1670 


1788 


36 


Nevada .... 


1850 


1864 


9 


New Hampshire 




1623 


1788 


'37 


Nebraska . . . 


1847 


1867 


lO 


Virginia . . 




1607 


1788 


38 


Colorado . . . 


1859 


1876 


II 


New York . 




1614 


17S8 


39 


North Dakota . 


1857 


1889 


12 


North Carolina 




1663 


1789 


40 


South Dakota . 


1857 


1889 


13 


Rhode Island 




1636 


1790 


41 


Montana . . . 


I86I 


18S9 


14 


Vermont . . 




1724 


1791 


42 


Washington . . 


1845 


1889 


15 


Kentucky . 






1774 


1792 


43 


Idaho .... 


1862 


1890 


16 


Tennessee 






1769 


1796 


44 


Wyoming . . . 


1867 


1890 


17 


Ohio . . . 






1788 


1803 


45 


Utah 


1847 


.1896 


18 


Louisiana . 






1700 


1812 


46 


Oklahoma . . . 


1889 


1906 


19 


Indiana . . 






1702 


1S16 


47 


New Mexico . . 


1582 


1912 


20 


Mississippi 
Illinois . . 






1716 
16S2 


1817 
1818 


48 


Arizona. . ._, . 


1580 


1912 


21 






23 


Alabama . 
Maine . . 






1702 
1625 


1819 
1S20 


Territories and P 


OSSESSIONS 


24 


Missouri . 






1719 


1S21 


Alaska P 


orto Rico 


25 


Arkansas . 






1670 


1S36 


Hawaii G 


uam 


26 


Michigan . 






1670 


1837 


District of T 


utuila Islands 


27 


Florida . . 






1565 


1845 


Columbia C 


anal Zone 


28 


Texas . . 






1685 


1845 


Philippine Islands "V 


irgin Islands 



LEADING DATES IN CONNECTION WITH THE 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(Dtih'i ill italiis to be nieiiiorized) 



1000 (about). The voyages of the North- 1608. 

men. 
1453. Fall of Constantinople (closing of 

trade routes). 1609. 

1492. Columbus discovers the Xciv World. 

1493. Demarcation Line of the Pope. 

1494. Demarcation Line agreed upon by 161O. 

Spain and Portugal. 
14917. ^''"' C'^bots discover the mainland of 1614. 

North America. 
1507. The name " America " suggested 

by Waldseemiiller. 1619. 

1513. Ponce de Le(5n discovers Florida. 

Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 
1519. Cortes conquers Mexico. 
1521. Magellan discovers the Philippine 

Islands. 1620. 

1524. \'errazano"s voyage. 

1525. tiomez visits the Hudson River. 1626. 
1535. Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence 

River. 1630. 

1539. De Soto begins his expedition. i634- 

1540. Coronado's expedition. 1636. 

1541. De Soto reaches the Mississippi. 

1558. .Accession of Elizabeth. l637' 

1565. The Spaniards settle Si. Auj^ustiue, 1638. 

the oldest city in the United 1639. 

States. . 1642. 

1578. Drake in the Pacific. 1643. 

1582. The Spaniards found the city of 

Santa Fe. 1649. 

1583. Ciilbert on North .Atlantic coast. 

1584. Raleigh sends expedition to the 

eastern coast of .Vmerica. 1660. 

1588. Defeat of the .\rmada (beginnings 1662. 

of English colonization). 1664. 

1604. French attempt settlement of 

.\cadia. 
1607. The English settle Jamcstoirn, the 

first permanent English settlement 

in America. 1665. 



The French found Quebec, the first 
permanent French settlement in 
America. 

The Hudson River is explored by 
Henr>' Hudson for the Dutch. 

Champlain's fight with the Iroquois. 

Hudson explores Hudson's Bay for 
England. 

The Dutch take possession of New 
Netherlands later called New 
York. 

The first laivmaking assembly in 
America meets in Jamestoxcn, 
Virginia. 

Negro slavery is introduced into 
Virginia. 

The Pilgrims land at Plymouth. 

The Mayflower compact. 

The Dutch purchase Manhattan 
Island from the Indians. 

The settlement of Boston. 

Settlement of St. Marys, Maryland. 

Settlement of Providence by Roger 
Williams. 

The Pequot War. 

Swedes settle Delaware. 

The Connecticut constitution. 

Beginning of civil war in England. 

The first New England Confedera- 
tion. 

The passage of the Peligiotis Tolera- 
tion Act in Maryland. 

Execution of Charles 1 of England. 

The English Restoration. 

Connecticut granted charter. 

New Netherland is captured by the 
English ; New Amsterdam be- 
comes New York. 

The union of the New Haven and 
Connecticut colonies. 

The " Duke's Jaws," of New York. 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



1669. The French begin the exploration 

of the West. 

1670. Settlement of Charleston, South 

Carolina. 
1673. Jolliet and Father Marquette begin 
their famous journey. 

1675. King Philip's War. 

1676. The Bacon rebellion in Virginia. 

1681. Charter of Pennsylvania granted. 

1682. La Salle explores the Mississippi 

River. 

1683. Governor Dongan calls the first 

legislative assembly in New York. 
William Penn settles Philadelphia. 

1688. Flight of James II of England 

(English Revolution). 

1689. King William's War (1689-1697). 
1692. The Salem witchcraft. 

1699. The founding of Louisiana. 

1701. Settlement of Mobile by the French. 

1702. Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). 
1704. First newspaper in America {^Boston 

Nnvs-Lctter). 
1713. Treaty of Utrecht (Nova Scotia, 

Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay 

ceded to England). 
1718. The French settle New Orleans. 
1733. The English settle Georgia. 
1744. King George's War (1744-1748). 

1754. The last or fourth French and 

Indian War (1754-1763). 
The Albany Convention. 

1755. The defeat of Braddock. 

1758. The English take Fort Duquesne. 

1759. The Etis:Ush under Wolfe ea//iire 

Quebec. 
1761. Otis's speech on writs of assistance. 
1763. Treaty of Peace at Paris. Cauaeia 
ceded to Great Britabi. 
Pontiac's War. 

1765. The Stamp Act passed by Parlia- 

ment. 
The Stamp Act Congress (Patrick 
Henry's resolutions). 

1766. Repeal of the Stamp Act. 
Declaratory Act. 

1767. The Townshend Acts (colonial 

union). ' 

1769. Steam engine invented. 

1770. The Boston Massacre. 

1773. The Boston Tea Party. 

1774. The First Continental Congress meets 

in Philadelphia (.September 5). 
The Five Intolerable Acts. 



1775- Patties of Lexington and Concord 
(April 19). 
Second Continental Congress 

(May 10). 
Washington appointed commander 

in chief (June 15). 
Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17). 
1776. Declaration of Independence (July 4) . 



Surrender of Biirgoyne (October 17). 

France acknoTvledges the independ- 
ence of the United States (Feb- 
ruary 6). 

The French alliance. 

Surrender of Cornii<alUs at York- 
town (October 19). 

Articles of Confederation ratified. 

Treaty of Peace with Great Britain 
(September 3). 

1786. Annapolis Convention. 

1787. The Constitiition adopted by the 

Federal Convention. 

Ordinance of the Northwest Territon. 

The states accept the Constitution. 

The beginning of our goverinnent 
under the Constitution. 
1789-1791. First ten amendments (Hill 

of Rights). 
1789- 1797. \ Vashington president. 
1789. Formation of the cabinet. 

Revenue tariff imposed. 

First census. 

P'irst Bank of the United States. 

(iray enters the Columbia River. 

The cotton gin invented by Whitney. 

Neutrality proclamation. 

The Whisky Rebellion. 

Jay's treaty with Great Britain. 
1797-1801. John Adams president. 
1798. The X Y Z papers. 

The Alien and -Sedition Laws. 

Eleventh .Amendment (suits against 
states). 

Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. 

Death of Washington. 

Peace with France. 

The city of Washington becomes 
the capital of the nation. 
1801-1809. Thomas Jefferson president. 
1801. War with Tripoli. 

1803. Purchase of Louisiana (beginning 

of territorial expansion). 

1804. Lewis and Clark expedition. 
Twelfth Amendment (election of 

president and vice president). 



1777, 
1778, 



1781. 



1783- 



1788. 
1789. 



1790. 
1791. 
1792. 
1793- 

1794. 
1795- 



1799 
1800 



LEADIN(i DATES 



1807. The embargo (national power over 

commerce). 
Fulton's steamboat (August 11). 

1808. Importation of slaves forbidden. 

1809. Xon- Intercourse Act. 
1809-1817. James Madison president. 

1811. Battle of Tippecanoe. 

1812. War against Great Britain (neutral 

commerce and impressment). 

1814. Hartford Convention. 

The British capture Washington. 
Peace treaty with Great Britain 
signed at Ghent (December 24). 

1815. Jackson defeats British at New 

Orleans (January 8). 
1815-1824. Era of good feeling. 

1816. First Protective Tariff Act. 
Second Bank of the United States. 

1817-1825. James Monroe president. 

1819. The purchase of Florida. 

First steamship crosses the Atlantic. 

1820. The Missouri Compromise (national 

prohibition of slavery). 

1823. T/ie .]/onroe Doetrine. 

1824. Lafayette visits the United States. 
1825-1829. John Qitincy Adams president. 

1825. The Erie Canal opened. 
1828. The first railroad. 
1829-1837. . Andrew Jackson president. 

1830. Great debate between Webster and 

Hayne. 

1831. Beginning of the abolition move- 

ment. 

1832. President Jackson vetoes the L'nited 

States Bank Bill. 
Niillijication in South Carolina. 

1833. Chicago founded. 

1834. McCormick's reaper. 

1835. Texas declared her independence 

of Me.xico. 
1837. Great financial panic. 
1837-1841. Martin Van Buren president. 

1839. Beginning of the express business. 

1840. First line of steamships between 

Europe and America. 
1841-1845. Wdliam Henry Harnson 
president (1841). 
John Tyler president (1841-1S4;). 
1842. Ashburton Treaty. 
Dorr Rebellion. 

1844. The electric telegraph invented. 

1845. Annexation of Texas. 
Discover)' of ether. 

1845-1849. James K. Polk president. 



1845. Texas admitted to the Union. 

1846. The Oregon question settled. 
The sewing machine invented. 
ll'ar dee tared against Mexieo. 

1847. City of Mexico captured. 

1848. Peace treaty with Mexico signed 

(February 2). 
Discoiery of gold in California. 
1849-1853, Zaehaiy Taylor president 
(1849-1850). 
Millard Fillmore president (1850- 
1853)- 
1850. The Omnibus Bill (slavery com- 
promise). 
Fugitive Slave Laiv. 

1852. Rise of the Know-Nothing party. 
1853-1857. Franklin Pierce president. 

1853. tiadsden Purchase. 

1854. Perry's treaty with Japan. 
Kansas-Xebraska Act (repeal of 

Missouri Compromise). 
Struggle for Kansas begun. 
Origin of the Republican party. 
1857-1861. James Buchanan president. 
18^'j. Dred Scott decision (slavery restric- 
tions annulled). 

1858. First Atlantic cable. 

The Lincoln-Douglas debate. 

1859. John Brown's raid. 
i860. Election of Lincoln. 

Secession of South Carolina (Decem- 
ber 20). 
1861. Establishment of the Southern Con- 
federacy (February 4). 
Jefferson Davis elected president 
of the Confederacy. 
1861-1869. Abraham Lincoln president 
(1861-1S65). 
Andrew Johnson president (1865- 
1S69). 

1861. Fall of Fort Sumter. 

Battle of Bull Run (July 21). 
The Trent affair. 

1862. The Monitor and the Merrimac 

(March, 9). 

1863. The Emancipation Proclamation 

(January i). 
Battle ofGettysbtrrg (July i-;,)- 
Fall of Vicksburg (July 4). 
1865. Lee surrenders (.\pril 9). 

President Lincoln assassinated 

(April 14). 
The Thirteenth Amendment (slavery 

forbidden). 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



1866. 
1867. 



1870. 



1871. 
1872. 
1873- 
1876. 

1877. 
1877- 
1877. 



1881-1885 



Laying of the Atlantic cable. 

Reconstruction Acts passed (Con- 
gress asserts its power). 

Purchase of Alaska. 

Impeachment of President Johnson. 

The Fourteenth Amendment (citizen- 
ship defined). 

1877. Ulysses S. Grant president. 

The Pacific Railroad completed. 

Weather Bureau established. 

Fifteenth Amendment (negro suf- 
frage) . 

Reconstruction completed. 

Treaty of Washington. 

Alabama claims settled. 

Business crisis. 

Telephone and electric light exhib- 
ited at Centennial Exhibition. 

The Electoral Commission. 

1881. Rutherford B. Hayes president. 

Withdrawal of troops from the South. 

Resumption of specie payment. 

lames A. Garfield president 
(1881). 

Chester A. Arthur president (1S81- 



1885- 
1885. 
1886, 



1890 



1892 
1893- 



Assassination of President Garfield. 

Civil Service Reform Commission. 
•1889. Graver Cleveland president. 

Civil Service Reform. 

Presidential Succession Act. 

Interstate Commerce Act (legisla- 
tion on railroads). 

Introduction of Australian ballot. 
•1803. Benjamin Harrison president. 

Opening of Oklahoma. 

Admission of Wyoming with full 
woman suffrage. 

Sherman Silver Purchase Act. 

Chinese Exclusion Law. 
•1897. G'over Cleveland president. 

The Columbian Exposition. 

Great business crisis. 

Bering Sea Commission. 

Repeal of the Sherman Silver Pur- 
chase Act. 



1894. Labor Day made a national holi- 
day. 

1896. Admission of Utah. 

\'enezuela question settled. 

1897-1905. I i 'illiam Mc Kinky president 
(1S97-1901). 
Theodore Roosevelt president (1901- 
1905). 

1898. Destruction of the Maine (Feb- 
ruary 15). 

1898. War with Spain deelarcd{A^n\ 25). 
Battle of Manila (May i). 
Annexation of Hawaii (July 7). 

1899. Treaty of peace with Spain ratified 

(February 6). 

1900. Gold Standard Act. 



190 1. 



Assassmation 
Kinley. 



of President Mc- 



The Pacific cable to Manila. 

Department of Commerce and 
Labor established. 
1904. Treaty with Panama. 
1905-1909. Theodo7-e Roosevelt presi- 
dent. 

The San Francisco disaster. 

Admission of Oklahoma. 

Intervention in Cuba. 

The Second Hague Conference. 

The Crisis of 1907. 
1909-1913. I f 'illiam H. Taft president. 

1909. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. 

1910. The Reciprocity movement. 

1912. Admission of New Mexico and 

Arizona. 
1913- . Woodrow Wilson president. 



1902, 
1903 



1906. 



1907. 



1913- 



1916. 
1917. 



Sixteenth Amendment (income tax). 
Seventeenth Amendment (direct 

election of United States senators 

by the people). 
Federal Reserve Currency Act. 
Bes:innin;r of the Great War in 

Europe. 
Federal Farm Loan Act. 
War with Germany. 
War with Austria. 



TOIMCAL ANALYSIS 



I. 'I'l 



CiRKAT Navigators 



Early Voyages to America. St. Brendan 

C 1. Voyages and settlements 
The Northmen \ ~- I-^'f Ericson and Vinland 

(^ 3. Results of the Norse voyages 

Importance of the period 

C a. Progress of education 
Conditions leading I ^'- '""^^^ °^ geographical knowledge 
to e.Nploration 1 ': r>evelopment of comtrierce 
Europe in the | "• Need of new routes of commerce 

Fifteenth Can- \ L '• Keligious zeal 

*"'y 3. Trade between Europe and Asia | ": H^ f;^"°^.^'^ ''""''^ 

l^ i?. The V enetian route 

4. Interference of the Turks 

5. Adventures of Marco Polo 

6. (ireat inventions 

1. Birth and early education 

2. His ideas of the earth 
Christopher Columbus ^ 3- His religious zeal 

4. .At court of Portugal 

5. At court of Spain 

6. Assistance received 

1. His fleet 

2. Difficulties of the voyage 

3. Discovery of land 

4. Further discoveries 

5. Belief of Columbus as to new land 

6. Reception at home 

7. Later voyages 

8. Las Casas and the Indians 



Voyage of Columbus 



9. Results in Europe 



ti. Commerce 
/'. Colonies 
c. Wars 
l^ (/. Industrial life 



Voyages of the Cabots | '■ "iscoveo- of North America 

(^ 2. Extent of English claims resultmg from these voyages 



Portuguese Enterprise 

Division of the World 
by the Pope 



\'asco da Gama 

Cabral and Brazil 

Effects of Da Gama's voyage on the fortunes of Columbus 



f I. Reason for the division 
t 2. Religi 



ligious beliefs of the early great discoverers 
xxxi 



XXXll 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



How America was named 

Balboa and the South Sea, or Pacific Ocean 

f a. The cruise along South America 
/'. Discovery of the Strait 
c. Naming the Pacific 
(/. Discovery of the Ladrones 
c. Discovery of the Philippines 
/. Return of the Victoria to Spain 
1^ g. Results 



Further Discov- 
eries 



Magellan's first voyage 
around the world 



II. The Explorers 



Spanish Explora- ^ 
tions 



French Explora- 
tions 



I. Ponce de Leon < 



a. The magic fountain 

b. Discovery of Florida 



De Narvdez 



Coronado 



{I 



r a. Arrival in Mexico 
< h. The Aztecs 
1^ c. Conquest of Mexico 
De Ayllon's expedition to Virginia 

Expedition to Florida 
Cabeza de Vaca 
r a. Fatlrer Mark 

b. The expedition 

c. Canyon of the Colorado 

d. " Seven cities of Cibola " 
I e. The Zufii pueblos 

\ f. Santa Fe 

( a. Conquest of Florida 
„ „ \ b. Reaches the Mississippi 
De Soto ^ T^ n- J 

] c. De Pmeda 

1^ d. Rio de Espiritu Santo 
Extent of Spanish possessions 



8. Claims of Spain 

9. Motives of Spain 



Religii 



r a. Rel 

\ b. Go; 



)ld-seeking 
^ c. Love of adventure 



r a. Francis I of France 

1. Verrazano «' /-■. The voyage 

1^ c. The description of the coast 
( a. Discovery of the St. Lawrence 

2. Cartier \ ^- ff^"^ ^^^^^^ 

I c. Montreal 

l^ d. Newfoundland fisheries 

T-v AT .. r ^- Acadia 

3. De Monts <^ , „ 

^ \b. Port Royal 

a. " Father of New France " 

b. Founds Quebec, first permanent French set- 
„, , . tlement in America 

4. Champlam ^ t^. t 1 r>u 1 • 

c. Discovers Lake Champlam 

d. Defeats the Iroquois 

e. Results of this defeat 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



The French 
in Florida 



r a. Ril 
/-. La 

-I c. Mt 



Ribaut and Port Royal, South Carolina 
audonniere and Fort Caroline, Florida 
enendez destroys Fort Caroline 
I d. Menendez founds St. Augustine for Spain 



French Explora- ^ (^ f. De Gourgues's revenge 

tions (io,i/in,uJ) I f ,j. Fisheries 

l>. Fur trade 
6. Motives of P'rance ^ c. Religious zeal 

I (/. Missionary enterprise 
(^ e. Territory for France 

1. English lack of interest 

2. Frobisher and the Northwest Passage 
C a. His voyage 

3. Drake < b. New Albion 



English Explo- , 
rations 



Gilbert 



Davis 



6. Sir Walter 
Raleigh 



Second circumnavigation of the world 

( a. His charter 
Sir Humphrey J b. Reasons for the expeditions 

I c. Three voyages 

l_ d. Newfoundland 

Discovery of the Strait 
a. First attempt at colonization. Roanoke 
/'. (iold-seekers, not colonists 
c. Second attempt. Croatoan 
(/. War between England and France. The .\rmada 

e. Results of colonizing effort < 1 \ -r v. 
\^ f. Name of \'irginia 

7. Gosnold and Cape Cod 

8. Pring and Weymouth 

9. Claims of England 
a. Territory 
/'. Spirit of adventure 

c. Rivalry with Spain 

d. Beginning of English colonization spirit 

Results of Spanish, French, and English Explorations at the End of the Sixteenth 

Century 
Permanent Settlements by the Spanish and French 



Motives 



III. The Early Missionariks 



The Early Missionaries ^ 



I. In Florida 



a. The Jesuits 

b. The Franciscans 



2. In New France 



a. The Recollets, or Franciscans 

b. The Jesuits 

3. The Huron missions 

4. The Ottawa missions 

5. The Maine missions 

6. The zeal of the missionaries 

7. Their sufferings and death 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



The Indians 



IV. The Indians 

1. Reason for the name 

2. Personal appearance 

3. The Indians of the West 
l- The Pueblo Indians 

5. The Cliff Dwellers 

3. The Indians of the East 

7. The so-called mound builders 



8. Social condition 



9. Religion 



a. Dwellings 

/'. Food 

c: Implements and weapons 

(/. Habits and mode of travel 

f. Cruelty in war 

/. Patience in suffering 

^. Position of women 

//. Character 

/. Civilization 



C ii. Family groups 

I /'. Clan 
(-. Totem 
</. Sachem 
f. Tribe 
/. \A'ampum 
Number of Indians 



10. Organization «( 



[2. Leading Indian families < 



a. Algonquian 

/'. Iroquoian 

r. Muskhogean 

d. Siouan 

c. Shoshonean 

/. Caddoan 

o-. Athapascan 



Virginia - 



V. Permanent Colonial Settlements 

1. Conditions leading to colonization 

2. London and Plymouth companies 

3. Provisions of the charter 

4. The Popham colony in Maine 

5. Settlement at Jamestown, first permanent English settlement 

in America 

6. Lord Delaware and the second charter 

7. Captain John Smith and Pocahontas 

8. Governor Dale 
g. Tobacco culture and its effects 

10. Introduction of slavery 

11. Indentured servants 

12. Representative government 

13. First representative assembly 

14. Loss of charter. Governor Berkeley 

15. The navigation laws 

16. Virginia a royal colony 

17. Bacon's rebellion 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



New Netherland 



1. \erra2an0 and Ci6mez at the Hudson River 

2. Hudson explores the river 

3. The Dutch take possession of New Netherland 

4. The position of Holland in the world's commerce 

5. Settlement of Manhattan 

6. The patroons 

7. Peter Stuyvesant 

S. The English seize the colony 

9. The " Duke's laws " 

I©. Governor Dongan and the Charter of Liberties 

11. The First American Congress 

12. Leisler's rebellion 

13. Royal colony 



New Jersey j 



1. Settlement by the Dutch 

2. Claimed by the English 

3. East and West Jersey 

4. Settlement of Elizabeth and Newark 

5. Jersey united 

6. Royal colony 



Massachusetts ; Plymouth 
Colony, 1620 



1. The Pilgrims in England and Holland 

2. The Pilgrims and the Mayjiorwcr 

3. Landing at Plymouth 

4. Treaty with the Indians 

5. The town meeting 

6. Absorbed by the Massachusetts Bay colony 



Massachusetts ; Massachu- 
setts Bay Colony, 1630 



1. The Puritans settle Salem 

2. Settlement of Boston 

3. Religious disturbances 

4. Roger Williams 

5. The New England Confederation 

6. Persecution of the Quakers 

7. King Philip's War 
S. Salem witchcraft 

9. Massachusetts loses her charter 

10. Andros appointed governor 

11. Plymouth colony absorbed 

12. The new charter 



New Hampshire, 1623 



1. Grant to Gorges and Mason 

2. .'settlement of Dover and Portsmouth 

3. Union of New Hampshire and Massachusetts 

4. Royal province 



Connecticut, 1634 



1. The Dutch at Hartford 

2. Emigration from Massachusetts 

3. The Fundamental Orders 

4. The New Haven settlement 

5. The Pequot War 

6. Andros overthrows the charter government 

7. Regaining the charter 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Maryland, 1634 



New Sweden, or 
Delaware, 1638 



1. Position of Catholics in England 

2. Grant of Maryland to Calvert, Lord Baltimore 

3. Settlement of St. Marys 

4. The Toleration Act 

5. Claiborne's rebellion 

6. Baltimore loses his colony 

7. Baltimore regains his colony 

8. It becomes a royal colony 

9. Act of Toleration finally repealed 
10. Maryland restored to the Calverts 

[' I. Roger Williams founds Providence 
Rhode Island, 1636 -^ 2. Settlements of Portsmouth and Newport 

l^ 3. Religious toleration 
The Dutch on the Delaware 
The Swedes found Fort Christina 
The Dutch seize the colony 
The colony is captured by the English 
Purchased by William Penn 
Governed as a part of Pennsylvania 

1. Grant of Carolina 

2. Early settlement at Charleston 

3. Locke's Fundamental Constitutions 

4. Rice and indigo 

5. Separation of North and South Carolina 

6. Royal provinces 

1. Grant to Penn 

2. Frame of government 

3. Newcastle and Philadelphia 
Treaty with the Indians 

1. Grant to Oglethorpe 

2. Ideas of Oglethorpe 

3. Settlement of Savannah 

4. Provisions of the charter 

5. War with Spain 

6. Royal colony 



I 6. 



The Carolinas, 1663 < 



Pennsylvania, 1681 ■{ 



I 4- 



Georgia, 1733 -; 



VI. French Explorations 



The Missionaries • 



The Franciscans 



'\ 2. The Jesuits 
Jolliet and Marquette on the Mississippi 
f I. Father Hennepin 
I 2. Building the forts 



Robert de la Salle 



3. Exploration of the Mississippi 
i^ 4. Louisiana claimed for France 
Mobile 
New Orleans 
Duluth 
Detroit 
Vincennes 



French and English Colonization compared 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xxxvii 

VII. Wars of thk Enc.lish and thk F'rknch in Amkrica 

King William's War (War of the League f '• '^"^^i^^ "" '°""« '" ^'^^^ England 
of Augsburg), i689-i6<y7 ^ '""^ ^^^^ ^ °''' 



r I. Deerfield 

War of the Spanish Succession, or Queen Anne's J 2. Haverhill 

War, 1702-1713 ] 3. Port Royal 

1^ 4. Results 



War of the Austrian Succession, or King George's C 1. Louisburg 



War, I 


744-1748 \ 2. Results 






Cause 






The French forts 






The Ohio Company 






Washington's journey 






The French at Fort Duquesne 




6. 


Albany convention 




''■ 


Plan of campaign 

' a. Fort Duquesne 
/'. Louisburg and Acadia 




8. 


Five objective points \ c. Crown Point and Ticonderoga 


The Seven Years' 




1 d. Capture of Niagara 
[ €. Quebec 


War, or the French 




and Indian War, 


9- 


Braddock's defeat 


1754-1763 


10. 


Expulsion of Acadians 




11. 


Battle of Lake George 




12. 


Fort William Henry 

' a. Louisburg 




•3- 


French reverses \ b. Fort Duquesne 
c. Niagara 




14. 


Fall of Quebec 




'5- 


Results of the wars between the English and the French 




16. 


Conspiracy of Pontiac 




17- 


The Quebec Act 




LIS. 


The Proclamation Line of 1 763 



\'III. Life in the Colonies in 1763 
The Colonists and England 



Civil Government 



f a. Massachusetts 
I. Charter colonies < b. Rhode Island 
1^ c. Connecticut 

f a. Pennsylvania 
I 2. Proprietary colonies •< b. Delaware 
(^ (^ c. Maryland 



xxxviii ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Civil Government 

{contlmied) 



3. Royal colonies 



The New England Colonies 
The Middle Colonies 
The Southern Colonies 



a. New Hampshire 

h. New York 

c. New Jersey 

(/. Virginia 

e. North and South Carolina 

/. Georgia 



IX. The Period of the Revolution 



The American Revo- ^ 
lution, I 



The American Revo- 
lution, II 



I. Causes 



a. Difference in ideas and conditions between 
England and the colonies in 1760 

b. Taxation without representation 

c. Taxation by England to pay the expenses of the 
French and Indian War and to maintain a 

- standing army in America 

d. Navigation Acts 

e. \\'rits of Assistance 
/. The Stamp Act 

2. The Stamp Act Congress 

3. The Declaratory Act 

f a. Provision for quartering royal troops 

4. The Townshend J b. Trade laws 

Acts ] c. Taxes on glass, paper, tea, lead, and 

[ painters' colors 

5. The Boston Massacre 

6. The North Carolina Regulators 

7. The Boston Tea Party 
C a. Boston Port Bill 

b. Charter of Massachusetts changed 
■{ c. 7>ial of officers and soldiers in England 

(/. Quartering of troops 
i^ c. Quebec Act 

9. Committees of Correspondence 
10. First Continental Congress 

T. Capture of Fort William and Mary 

2. Battles of Lexington and Concord 

3. Ticonderoga and Crown Point 

4. Second Continental Congress 

5. Bunker Hill 

6. Washington commander in chief 

7. Expedition against Quebec 

8. English leave Boston 

9. Fort Moultrie 

10. Declaration of Independence 
IT. Influence of Common Sense 

12. Plan of the British 
r n- Battle of Long Island 

13. Campaign near New York J ^- I'f''^^ occupy New York 
' c. Fall of Fort Washmgton 

d. Retreat through New Jersey 



8. The Five In- 
tolerable Acts 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



XXXIX 



The American 
Revolution, II 

(continued) 



14. Battle of Trenton 

15. Robert Morris's great aid 

16. Distress of the American troops 



17. Campaign in the 
Middle States 



18. Burgoyne's expedition 



19. The French alhance 



a. Battle of Princeton 

b. Battle of Brandywine 

c. Howe takes Philadelphia 
(/. Buttle of Germantown 

c. Valley Forge 

/. Conway Cabal 

Battle of Bennington 
Fort Stanwix 
Oriskany 
Saratoga 
Surrender 
^ /. Important results 



1; 



The American 
Revolution, III 



5. War in the West 



The British retreat to Philadelphia 
Battle of Monmouth 
Stony Point 

Indian warfare \ ' ,' „/ ^ „ 

y b. Cherry valley 

a. George Rogers Clark 

b. F'ather Gibault 

c. Kaskaskia 

d. Cahokia 
c. Vincennes 
/. Results 

( a. Esek Hopkins 
6. War on the ocean \ b. John Barry 

1^ c. John Paul Jones 

a. Fall of Savannah 

b. Fall of Charleston 

c. Camden and King's Mountain 
(/. Cowpens 

c. Guilford Court House 
/ Hobkirk-s Hill 
g. Eutaw Springs 

8. Treason of Arnold 

9. Surrender of Comwallis 
10. Treaty of Peace 

Basis of laws for our territories 
Trial by jur)- 
The Northwest j c. Slaver^' prohibited 
Territor)' | d. Freedom of worship 

e. Education encouraged 
t /. Civil liberty guaranteed 
Independence acknowledged 
t. 13. Shays's Rebellion 



War in the South 



The Constitution (see Digest, Appendix, p. xxi) 



xl 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



X. Physical Features of the United States 

( 1. The Eastern Highland 
Three Geographical Regions -i 2. The Central Plain 

l^ 3. The Western Highland 
Effect of Physical Features on the Settlement of the Country 
The Resources of the United States 



XI. The Period of Union 



Washington's Admiris 
trations, 1789-1797 



John Adams's Adminis 
tration, 1797-1801 



Adminis 
trations, 1801-1809 



Madison's Ad- 
ministrations, 
1809-1817 



1. Political parties 

2. Loose and strict construction 

3. Payment of the debts 

4. Federal bank and mint 

5. Bishop Carroll 

6. Admission of Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee 

7. Indian troubles 

8. Settlements on the Ohio 

9. Whisky Rebellion 

10. The cotton gin 

11. First cotton mill 

12. The French Revolution 

13. "Citizen " Genet 

14. Jay's Treaty 

15. Treaties with Spain and Algiers 

16. Washington's farewell address 
r I. Trouble with France 
I 2. X Y Z papers 
■i 3. Alien and Sedition Laws 

4. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions 
1^ 5. The new capital 

1. The Democratic-Republican party in power 

2. Ohio admitted , 

3. War on the African pirates 

4. The Louisiana Purchase 

5. Exploration of Lewis and Clark 
5. The French and English War 

7. Right of search 

8. Embargo and non-intercourse *" 
1^ 9. Fulton's steamboat 

1. Trouble with Great Britain and France 

2. Battle of Tippecanoe 

3. Declaration of war 
a. Impressment of American sailors 
/'. Violation of our rights of commerce 

by the Orders in Council 
c. Blockade by English vessels of our 

ports and the search of our vessels 
if. Urging the Indians to attack our 

frontier settlements 
c. England was already really waging 

war on the United States, while the 

United States was at peace with her 



Causes of the war; 
" Free Trade and 
Sailors' Rights " 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



xli 



Madison's Administrations, 
1809-1817 {continued) 



5. Hull's surrender 

6. Battle of Queenstown Heights 

7. The Constitution and the Giierriire 
S. The Chesapeake and the Shannon 
9. Raisin River massacre 

10. Battle of Lake Erie 

1 1. Battle of the Thames 

12. Battle of Lake Champlain 

13. Burning of Washington 

14. Battle of New Orleans 

15. Treaty of peace 

16. The Hartford Convention 



Monroe's Ad- 
ministrations, < 
1817-1825 



1. Era of good feeling 

2. Cession of Florida 

3. The slavery question 



Missouri Compromise 
of 1820 



The Monroe 
Doctrine 



Missouri admitted as a slave state 
Maine admitted as a free state 
Slaverj' prohibited in Louisiana Bur- 
1^ chase north of 36*^ 30' 

r (1) Russia 

.,., ,,,.,,. I (2) Prussia 

a. Ihe Holv Alliance ^ ; : „ 

(3) France 

1^ (4) Austria 

b. The revolt in South America 

e. The Holy Alliance and the South American 
republics 
i^ d. Announcement of the Monroe Doctrine 



6. Visit of Lafayette 

7. Emigration to the West 

8. The National Road 



T..rt- Aj ,Aj- r>- The tariff question 

John Qumcy Adams's Adm.n- ^ ^ .j.,^^ ^^.^ 2^^^, 



istration, 1825-1829 



The steam railroad 



Andrew Jackson's Admin- 
istrations, 1829-1837 



1. Removals from office 

2. Nullification 

3. Webster and Hayne debate 

4. The abolition movement 

5. Social reforms 

6. Nat Turner rebellion 

7. The right of petition 

8. The contest over the United States Bank 

9. Indian wars 

10. Rise of American literature 



Van Buren's Adminis- 
tration, 1837-1841 



1. The crisis of 183; 

2. State banks and wildcat money 

3. The subtreasury plan 

4. The anti-rent agitation in New York 

5. The Mormons 

6. The express business 



xlii 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



f I. The Webster- Ashburton Treaty 
I 2. The Dorr rebelhon 
Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations,i84i-i845 H 3. The electric telegraph 

I 4. The clipper-ship era 
1^ 5. The annexation of Texas 
. Settlement of Oregon 

r a. Palo Alto 
. War with Mexico < b. Resaca de la Palma 

[ c. Buena Vista 
. Plan of campaign 
. New Mexico and California 



Polk's Administration, 1845-1849 



5. Scott's march to the 
city of Mexico 



6. The peace treaty 

7. The Wilmot Proviso 



a. Vera Cruz 
/'. Cerro Gordo 

c. Puebla 

d. Contreras 

e. Churubusco 

/. Molino del Rey 

g. Chapultepec 

//. Fall of the capital 



9. Discoveries 



The Compromise 
of 1S50, or the 
Omnibus Bill 



Taylor's and Fillmore's 

Administrations, 1849- -^ 

1853 



Pierce's Administration, 1853-1857 



Buchanan's Administration, 1857-1861 -i 



o T ,• r a. Reaper 

is. Inventions -^ , . r , . 

l^ b. bewmg machme 

J" a. Goodyear process 
\ b. Ether 

10. Great immigration from Europe 

11. The missions of Califor.ia 

12. Discovery of gold in California 

a. Admission of California as a free 
state 

b. Territorial governments for New 
Mexico and Utah 

c. Payment to Texas 

d. Prohibition of slave trade in 
District of Columbia 

e. Fugitive Slave Law 

2. Personal Liberty Laws 

3. " Uncle Tom's Cabin'' 

4. Gadsden Purchase 

Kansas-Nebraska Act 
Rise of the Republican party 
Ostend Manifesto 
The struggle for Kansas 
Perry's expedition to Japan 
i^ 6. The Know-Nothings 

The Dred Scott decision 
Crisis of 1857 
Lincoln-Douglas debates 
John Brown's raid 

5. Beginnings of secession 

6. Formation of Confederacy 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



xliii 



XIL Thk Period of Disunion 



Lincoln's Adminis- 
tration, 1861-1865 



1S61 



Lincoln's inaugural 

Fall of -Sumter 

Strength and weakness of the South 

Condition of the North 

The Border States 

European hostility to the North 

The Northern plan of the war 

The call to arms 

(7. Further secession 

/'. Battle of Bull Run, or Manassas 

c. The war in Missouri 

(/. The blockade 

c. The Trent affair 

/. The privateers 

(i) The plan against Richmond 

(2) The Peninsular Campaign 

(3) Battle of Cedar Mountain 

(4) Second Battle of Bull Run 

(5) Antietam 

(6) Fredericksburg 

(7) Monitor and Mcrr'nnac, or 
Virginia 

(i) Forts Ilenrjand Donelson 

(2) Shiloh,or Pittsburg Landing 

] (3) Capture of New Orleans 

I' 
Emancipation Proclamation 
The Homestead Act 



10. The war in 1S62 



East 



b West 



(4) Perrj'ville and Murfreesboro 



1 3. The war in 1 863 



< b. \\ 



East /^'^ Chancellorsville 
\ (2) Gett)'sburg 
est: Vicksburg 

Eastern Tennessee 



J (i) Chickamauga 

I (2) CI 



hattanooga 
r (i) Sherman's march to the sea 
(2) Fall'of Mobile 
f a. East \ (3) Battles of the Wilderness 
(4) Sheridan defeats Early 
The war J I (5) Petersburg 

in 1S64 I f (i) Sherman's march from Chatta- 

, I nooga to Atlanta 

t. b. W est ^ ^^^ Schofield at Franklin 
l^ (3) Thomas at Nashville 





'a. 

b. 


Sherman at Goldsboro 




Fall of Richmond 


15- 


The war in 1865 -! c. 


Lee's surrender 




d. 

€. 


Cost of the war 




Results of the war 


16. 


Assassination of Lincoln 


17. 


Chart of the Civil W 


ar 



xliv 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



XIII. The Period of Reunion 



Andrew Johnson's Administration, 
1865-1869 



1. Plans for reconstruction 

2. The Thirteenth Amendment 

3. Civil war in Mexico 

4. The Civil Rights Act 

5. The Fourteenth Amendment 

6. The Freedmen's Bureau Act 

7. The Reconstruction Acts 

8. The Carpetbaggers and Ku-Klux Klan 

9. The Tenure of Office Act 

10. Impeachment of President Johnson 

11. Atlantic telegraph cable 

12. Purchase of Alaska 



Grant's Administrations, 1869-1877 ■< 



1. The A/ainwa claims 

2. Civil-service reform 

3. The transcontinental railroad 

4. Great fires of Chicago and Boston 

5. The Fifteenth Amendment 

6. Era of scandals 

7. The Weather Bureau 

8. Crisis of 1873 

9. Financial legislation 

0. The Centennial Exposition 

1. The Indian wars 

2. The electoral commission 



Hayes's Administration, 
1877-1881 



Withdrawal of Federal troops from the South 
The Bell telephone 
The electric light 
The Eads ietties 



1^ 5. Resumption of specie payment 



XIV. The Period of Industrial Development 



Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations, 



1. Assassination of President Garfield 

2. Revision of tariff 

3. Civil-Service Act 

4. The Chinese Exclusion Act 

5. The Alien Contract Labor Law 
^ 6. Democrats regain power 



Cleveland's Administration, 1885-1889 



1. The Washington Monument 

2. The Statue of Liberty 

3. The Presidential Succession Act 

4. The electoral count 

5. Interstate commerce 

6. Tariff discussion 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



xlv 



Harrison's Administration, 1885H1893 ■< 



1. Oklahoma 

2. Admission of new states 

3. Pan-American Congress 

4. The McKinley Tariff Act 

5. The Pension and Sherman Acts 

6. The Homestead strike 

7. Founding of Catholic University 



Cleveland's Second Administration, 
1893-1897 



1. The Wilson Tariff Act 

2. Hawaii 

3. The Bering Sea question 

4. The Venezuela question 

5. The crisis of 1S93 

6. Repeal of the Sherman Act 

7. Pullman strike 

(^ S. Repeal of the Federal Elections Act 



McKinley's Administration, 1897-1901 



1. The silver question 

2. The Dingley Tariff Act 

3. Destruction of the Maine 

4. Declaration of war against Spain 

5. Battle of .Manila Bay 

6. The Santiago campaign 

7. Battles of El Caney and San Juan 

8. Destruction of Cervera's fleet 

9. Terms of peace 

10. War in the Philippines 

11. The Hague Conference 

12. The Gold Standard Act 

13. Freedom of trade with China 



McKinley's and Roosevelt's Administra- 
tions, 1901-1905 



The Pan-American Exposition 
Assassination of President McKinley 

, J. Anthracite coal strike 

I 4. Panama Canal 

I 5. Department of commerce and labor 

(^ 6. Louisiana Purchase Exposition 



Roosevelt's Administration, 1905-1909 



1. The San Francisco disaster 

2. Admission of Oklahoma 

3. The Railway Rate Act 

4. The Meat Inspection Act 

5. The Pure Food Act 

6. Intervention in Cuba 

7. The Hague Peace Conferences 

8. The crisis of 1907 



The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act 
Two great celebrations 
Taft's Administration, 1909-1913 -i ^,. Admission of New Mexico and Arizona 
4. Extension of conser\'ation 
1^ 5. Reciprocity movement 



xlvi 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Wilson's Administra- 
tions, 1913- 



The Sixteenth Amendment 

The Seventeenth Amendment 

The Department of Labor 

The Underwood Tariff Act 

The Federal Reserve Currency Act 

The Keokuk Dam and Cape Cod Canal 

The Panama Tolls Act 

The Alaska railroad 

The Clayton Anti-Trust Act 

The Federal Trade Commission Law 

The Initiative, Referendum, Recall, and Direct Primary 

The commission form of government 

Safeguarding the public health 

Water supply for cities 

The growth of electric traction 

The Panama expositions 

Development of the automobile industry 

The New York Barge Canal 

Record of American inventions 

The Mexican civil war 

The Great \\'ar in Europe 

The income tax 

The Federal Farm Loan Act 

Purchase of Virgin Islands 

War with Germany and Austria 



INDEX 



Abcrcrombie, General James, 141 
Abolition movement, zcp 
Abolitionists, 296 
Acadia (Nova Scotia), 134, 13^) 
Acadians expelled, 139 

Acts of Parliament, affecting the colonies, 
167 

leading to the Revolution, 170-17S 
Adams, John, administration of, 246 

life of, 246 (note) 
Adams, John Quincy, administration of, 287 

life of, 287 (note) 

on right of petition, 298 
Adams, Samuel, in Revolution, 172 
Africa, early voyages around, 9 (note) 
Aguinaldo, president of Philippine republic, 

Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of (1748), 135 
Alabama, admitted, 279 

secedes, 349 
Alabama, cruise of, 37S 

claims settled, 393 
Alaska, discovery of gold in, 423 (note) 

purchased, 392 

railroad in, 444 
Alaska- Yukon Exposition, 432 
Albany (or Fort Orange) settled (1623), 74 
Albany Convention (or Plan of Union) of 1754, 

137 
Albion, New, 38 (note) 

Alexander VI, Pope, and Demarcation Line, 16 
Algiers, hostilities with, 252 
Algonquian Indians, 54 
Alien Contract Labor I.aw, 405 
Alien and Sedition Laws, 247 
Allegheny River, forts on, 136 
Allen, Ethan, takes Ticonderoga, iSo 
Alliance, the Holy, 282 
Alliance with France, 201 
Amendments to the Constitution : 

first ten (17S9-1791), 220 

Eleventh (1798), 247 (note) 

Twelfth (1804), 246 (note) 

Thirteenth (i86s), 386 

Fourteenth (1868), 3S9 

Fifteenth (1870), 394 

Sixteenth (1913). 440 

Seventeenth (11)13), 44^ 
America, North, continent of, discovered by 
Cabot, 16 

Dutch settlements in, 72 

English colonies declare independence, 1S5 

English settlements in, 62 

first law-making assembly, 70 

first negro slaves introduced in English, 69 

first permanent English settlement in, 66 

first permanent French settlement in, 34 

first permanent Spanish settlement in, 37 

French explorations in, 32 

origin of the name, 19 



physical geography of United States, 225 

reasons for English colonization in, 62 

Spanish explorations in, 26 

Swedish settlements in, 77 

voyages of the Northmen to, 2 

voyages of Vespucius to, iS 

wars of the ^"^ench and English in, 131 
America, South, revolutions in, 282 (note), 42S 

the Monroe Doctrine, 2S3 
American flag, history of, 198, 199 
American Party, Native, 343 
American Revolution, 167 
American System, 2S8 
Americus Vespucius, 18 
Amsterdam, Fort, founded, 75 
Anaesthetics discovered, 326 
Anderson, Major, at Fort Sumter, 353 
Andre, capture and execution of, 210 
Andros, Governor. 94 
Annapolis (Port Royal), 34 
Annapolis. Mar>land, Naval Academy at, 319 
Annexation, of Guam, 422 

of Hawaii, 413 

of the Philippines, 422 

of Porto Rico, 422 

of the Samoan Islands, 424 (note) 

of Texas, 315 

of the Virgin Islands, 455 
Anti- Federalists, 230 
Anti-renters, 306 
Antislavery movement, 296 
Antislaver>' party formed, 310 (note) 
Appomattox Court House, Lee's surrender at, 

3«i 
Apprentices, white, m Virgmia, 69 (note) 
Aquidneck Island, 91 

Argall destroys Maine settlements, 84 (note) 
Arizona, admission to the Union, 434 
Arkansas admitted, 301 
Arkwright, 240 (note) 
Arlington. Lord. 70 
Armada. Spanish, defeat of, 40 (note) 
Armv, review of. at end of Civil War, 3S6 
Amol J, Benedict, at battle of Lake Champlain 
(1776), roo 

expedition against Quebec, 1S2 

at Fort Stanwix, 199 

at Saratoga, 200 

at Ticonderoga, 1^0 

treason of. 209 
Arthur, administration of, 404 

life of, 404 (note) 
Articles of Confederation, defects of, 216 
Ashburton Treaty, Webster-, 311 
Asia, early trade routes with, 4 
Assassination, of Garfield, 404 

of Lincoln, 33? 

of McKinley, 425 
Assistance, writs of. 169 
Assumption Act, 232 



xh 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Astoria, 258 

Astrolabe invented, 7 

Atchison, Kansas, settled, 341 

Atlanta captured by Sherman, 377 

Atlantic telegraph cable, 391 

Auriesville, New York, 49 

Austin, Moses, 314 

Authors, American, 301 

Automobile industry, growth of the, 449 

Aztecs, 27 

Bacon's rebellion, 71 

Balboa discovers the Pacific, 19 

Baltimore, founded, 108 

in War of 1812, 273 
Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, Lord, 105 
Baltimore, George Calvert, Lord, 102 
Bancroft, George, the historian, 302, 319 
Bank, the first, of the United States (1791), 234, 
266 (note), 299 

Jackson vetoes bill to recharter the second, 
of the United States, 299 

the second, of the United States (1816), 299 
Banks, Federal Reserve, 442 

independent subtreasury plan, 306 

the " pet," 299 

state, and wildcat money, 305 
Banks, General Nathaniel P., 364 
" Banner, The Star-Spangled, " 273 
Barbary States, war with, 252 
Barge Canal, New York, 290 (note), 449 
Barry, Commodore John, 207 
Battles: Alamance, 175 

Alamo, 314 

Antietam (or Sharpsburg), 365 

Atlanta, 377 

Bemis Heights, 200 

Bennington, 196 

Brandywine, 195 

Buena Vista, 321 

Bull Run ^or Manassas) (first), 358 

Bull Run (second), 365 

Bunker Hill, 181 

Camden, 209 

Cedar Mountain, 365 

Cerro Gordo, 323 

Chadd's Ford, 195 

Chancellorsville, 373 

Chapultepec, 324 

Charleston, 381 

Chattanooga, 376 

Cherry Valley, 203 

Chesapeake and Shamtoii, 270 

Chickamauga, 375 

Chippewa, 272 

Churubusco, 323 

Cold Harbor, 379 

Concord, 179 

Constitntimi and the Guerriire, 269 

Contreras, 323 

Corinth, 371 

Cowpens, 210 

Crown Point, 142, 181 

Dallas, 377 

El Caney, 421 

Eutaw Springs, "211 

Fair Oaks (or Seven Pines), 364 

Flamborough Head, 208 

P'ort Donelson, 369 

Fort Duquesne, 136 

Fort Henry, 369 

Fort McAllister, 378 



Fort McHenry, 273 

Fort Moultrie, 184 

Fort Stanwix, 197 

Fort Sumter, 354 

Fort Washington, igo 

Fort William Henry, 140 

Fort William and Mary, 179 

Franklin, 378 

Fredericksburg, 366 

Germantown, 195 

Gettysburg, 374 

Goldsboro, 381 

Guilford Court House, 211 

Harlem Heights, 189 

Hobkirk's Hill, 211 

Horseshoe Bend (or Tohopeka), 271 

Island Number 10, 370 

luka, 371 

Jackson, 375 

Kearsarge and the Alabama, 379 

Kenesaw Mountain, 377 

King's Mountain, 209 

Lake Champlain (1776), igo; (1S14), 272 

Lake Erie, 271 

Lake George, 140 

Lexington and Concord, 179 

Lexington and Edward, 207 

Long Island, 188 

Lookout Mountain, 376 

Lundy's Lane, 272 

Malvern Hill, 365 

Manila, 420 

Maumee, or Fallen Timbers, 237 

Memphis, 370 

Mill Springs, 368 

Missionary Ridge, 376 

Mobile Bay, 379 

Molino del Rev, 324 

Ji I on it or and 3/erritnac, 366 

Monmouth, 201 

Monterey, 321 

Murfreesboro, 370 

Nashville, 378 

New Orleans (War of 1S12), 273; (Civil 

War), 370 
Oriskany, 197 
Palo Alto, 320 
Peninsular Campaign, 363 
Perryville, 370 
Petersburg, 380 

Pittsburg Landing (or Shiloh), 369 
Plains of Abraham, 142 
Plattsburg, 272 
Port Gibson, 375 
Port Hudson, 371; 
President and L ittle Belt, 266 
Princeton, 193 

Quebec (1759). 142 ; (1775), 1S2 
Queenstown Heights, 268 
Resaca, 377 

Resaca de la Palma, 320 
San Antonio, 314 
San Jacinto, 314 
San Juan, 421 
Santiago, 421 
Saratoga, 200 
Savannah, 208 
Seminoles, 27S 

Seven Days before Richmond, 363 
Sharpsburg (Antietam), 365 
Shenandoah Valley, 379 
Shiloh (or Pittsburg Landing;, 369 



INDEX 



xlix 



Spottsylvania Court House, 379 

Stone's Kiver, 371 

Stony Point, 20^ 

Thames, 272 

Ticonderoga, 141, 142, iSo 

Tippecanoe, 206 

Tohopeka, 271 

TVenton, 191 

Tripoli, 252 

Vera Cruz, 323 

Vicksburg, 375 

White Plains, 190 

Wilderness, 379 

Williamsburg, 363 

Wilson's Creek, 360 

Winchester, 379 

Wyoming, 203 

Vorktown, 211 
Bay Psalm Book, 157 
Bear Republic, 322 
Beauregard, General, 354 
Bell, A. G., invents the telephone, 39S 
Bergen, 82 
Bering, Vitus, 256 
Bering Sea controversy, 413 
Berkeley, Sir William, 71 
Berkeley and Carteret, 82 
Berlin Decrees, 259 
Bienville founds New Orleans, 128 
Bill of Rights in the Constitution, 220 
Biloxi, settlement at, 128 
Bimey, J. (i., 298 (note), 310 (note), 315 
Black Hawk, 301 
Blaine, J. G., 406 
Bland-Allison Silver Act, 401 
Blockade in the Civil War, 361 
Blockhouse in colonial times, 165 
BoUvar, Simon, in South America, 427 
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 254 _ 
Botihommc Richard, 208 
Books, American, 301 
Boone, Daniel, 204 
Booth, J. Wilkes, 3S2 
Border States in Civil War, 356 
Boston, evacuated by the British, 183 

great fire in, 394 

port closed, 177 

settled (1630), 90 
Boston Massacre, 174 
Boston Nc'Ms-LetUr, 157 
Boston Tea Party, 176 
Braddock's defeat, 130 

Bradford, Governor William, of Plj-mouth, 86 
Bragg, General, 371 
Brant, Joseph, 203 
Brazil, iS 

Brebeuf, Father, 48 
Bright, John, 3A2 (note) 
Brooklyn Bridge, 405 
Brown, John, in Kansas, 342 

raid of, and execution, 347 
Brown I'niversity, \~,U 
Brownson, Orestes, 302 
Brush, C. !•'.. 399 
Brj-an, William J., 417, 424, 431 
Brj-ant, William Cullen, 302 
Buchanan, administration of, 345 

life of, 345 (note) 
Buckncr. General, 369 
Buell, General, 369 
Bunker Hill Monument, 2S4 
Burgesses, House of, in Virginia, 70 



Burgo>'ne, expedition of, u/i 

surrender of, 199 
Burke, Edmund, 171, 184 
I'.urnside, General, 3(10 
Burr, Aaron, 250, 25S 

kills Hamilton, 2;S 

plans empire in S^outhwest, 258 
Butler, Colonel John, 203 

Cabeza de Vaca, 29 

Cabinet, additions to, 42S (note) 

members of Washington's, 230 (note) 
Cable, the Atlantic, 391 

the Pacific, 392 
Cabot discovers the continent of America, I'^i 
Cabral, 18 

Calendar, the Gregorian, 136 
Calhoun, John C., "Exposition and Protest," 
2S9 (note) 

life of, 294 (note) 
California, admitted to the Union, 333 

discovery of gold in, 330 

emigration to, 330 

exploration of, 327 

missions in, 328 
Calumet, the, 59 

Calvert, Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, 105 
Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore, 102 
Calvert, Leonard, 105 
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 90, 1S2 
Canada, Cartier in, 33 

Dominion of, 435 

English conquest of, 142 

refuses to join American Revolution, 1S3 

settled, 34 
Canals : 

Cape Cod, 443 

Erie, 289 

New \'ork Barge, 290 (note), 449 

Panama, 425 

Pennsylvania system, 290 
Cape of Good Hope reached, i"' 
Capital of United States, 249 
Carolinas, constitution of the, 112 

nullification in South Carolina, 295 

secession of South Carolina, 34S 

settled. III 
Carpenters' Hall, 178 
Carpetbaggers, 390 
Carroll, Bishop John, 235 

with embassy to Quebec, 183 
Carroll, Charles, 1S3, 186 (note), 291 (note) 
Cartier's explorations, 33 
Cartwright, Edmund, 240 (note) 
Carver, Governor, 86 
Cass, Lewis, candidate for president, 331 
Catholics, in Maryland, 103 

Know-Nothirig movement against, 343 

persecution of, in New Vork, ^o 

position of, in England, 102 
Caucus system, 287 (note) 
Census, the first, 236 

of 1910, 434 
Centennial Exposition, 398 
Central Pacific Railroad, 371 
Cen'era, Admiral, 422 
Chabanel. Father, 50 
Champlain, the explorer, 34 
Charles 1 , 70, 90 (note) 
Charles H, 70 
Charieston, South Carolina, settled, 112 (note) 

capture of, in Revolution, 208 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Charlestown, Massachusetts, go 
Chart, of the explorers, 43 

of American Revolution, 224 
of Civil War Period, 3S3 
Charter of Liberties, Dongan's, 79 
Charter Oak, the, loi 
Charters; Georgia, 117 

London Company, 64, 65 (note), 68 
Maryland, 104 
Massachusetts, S6 
Pennsylvania, 114 
Plymouth Company, 64 
Chatham, Lord (WiUiam Pitt), 141 
Cherokee Indians, 300 
Cherry Valley massacre, 203 
Chesapeake, the, defeated by the Shannon, 270 
Chesapeake affair, the, of 1S07, 260 
Chicago ( Fort Dearborn), 297 
great fire in, 394 
World's Fair in, 413 
China, Boxer uprising in, 424 

"open door " in, 424 
Chinese Exclusion P.ill, 405 
Chinese immigration, 405 , , , , 

Church, of the Dutch in New Netherland, 77 

the Puritan, 89 
Church of England, in Virginia, 68 

in Maryland, 108 
Cibola, search for, 30 
Cincinnati founded (1790), 252 
Circular letter of Massachusetts, 174 
Circumnavigation of the globe, 20 
Cities, government of, 445 , ^ , , , 

Citv, the oldest in the United States (1565), 37 
City of Mexico, fall of, 324 
Civil Rights Act (1S66), 3S8 
Civil-service reform, 393 
Civil War, in England, 90 Tnote) 

in the United States,' 353 
Claiborne's rebellion, 105 
Clark, George Rogers, in the West, 204 
Clark, William, in LewisandClarkexpedition,255 
Clay, Henry, and American System, 28S 

life of, 281 
Clayton, Anti- Trust Act, 444 
Clermont, the, Fulton's steamboat, 261 
Cleveland, President, first administration of , 406 
life of, 406 (note) 
second administration of, 413 
Cliff Dwellers, 55 
Clinton, George, 258, 262 
Clinton, Governor De Witt, and the Erie 

Canal, 289 
Clinton, Sir Henry, 201 
Clipper ships, era of, 312 
Coal, discovery of, in Pennsylvania, 164 
Coal oil, 346 
Cod-fishing, 90 

Coinage, decimal system of, 234 
Coligny, 36 

Colleges and universities, foundation of : 
Brown, 156 

Catholic University, 41° 
Dartmouth, 156 
Georgetown, 161, 235 
Harvard, 156 
Kings (Columbia), 160 
Notre Dame (University), 126 (note) 
Princeton, 160 
Rutgers, 161 
William and Mary, 163 
Yale, 156 



Colonial architecture, 154 
Colonies, charter, 151 

declare themselves independent, 1S5 
founding of : 
Dutch, 72 
English, 62 
French, 33 
Spanish, 26 
Swedish, 77 
life in the, 151 
proprietary, isi 

resist taxation without representation, 171 
royal, 151 
Colonization Society, American, and Liberia, 

279 (note) 
Colorado, admitted as a state, 396 

gold and silver discovered in, 346 
Columbia, South Carolina, burned, 3S1 
Columbia River, named, 257 

discovery and exploration of, 257 
Columbian Exposition, 413 
Columbus, Christopher, early life of, 8 
first voyage of, 12 
later voyages of, 15 
in Portugal, 9 
in Spain, u 
Commerce, in colonial times, 153, 15S 
embargo on, 2'>o 
interfered with by England, 16S 
restricted by England, 158 
Commerce and Labor, Department of, 42S 
Commerce Commission, Interstate, 407 
Commission form of city government, 445 
Committees of Correspondence, 17S 
"Common Sense," Paine's, influence of, 185 

(note) 
Compact, \>^^J\[ayflomer, 86 
Compass, 7 

Compromises, of the Constitution, 21S 
Missouri, 280 
of 1850, 332 
tariff, 295 
Conditions leading to colonization, 62 
Confederacy, the Southern, and Border States, 
356 
constitution of, 349 (note) 
first capital of, 349 
fall of, 3S1 
formation of, 349 

recognized by foreign nations, 357 
Confederation, Articles of, adopted, 18S 

weakness of Articles of, 2 16 
Confederation, the New England, 91 
Congress, acts of •' _ 

OrdinanceforNorthwestTemtory(i787),2i5 

first tariff act (1789), 233 

first United States Bank (1791), 234 

first mint ^t-'i' *--•■' 4 

first I'u '■•'• — Act (1793), 334 (note) 

Alien an , ~ ,11 , I,aws(i798), 247 

Embai-j- \. 1 m ,1. 260 

importation ol slaves forbidden (180S), 262 

Non-Intercourse Act (iSog), 260 

National Road Law (1811), 284 

tariff of 1816, 275 (note) 

Missouri Compromise Act (1S20), 280 

tariff of 1833, 295 

Annexation of Texas (1845), 315 

Compromise of 1S50, 332 

Second Fugitive Slave Act (1S50), 333 

Homestead Act (1S62). 371 

Civil Rights Law (1S66), 3 88 



INDEX 



Freedmen's Bureau Law (1866), sSg 
Kcconstruction Laws (1X67), 3S9 
Tenure of Office Law (1S67). 390 
Civil Service Reform Law (1S71), 393 
coinage law of 1S73, 400 
Bland-Allison Act (1878), 401 
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 405 
tariff act of iS,S3, 404 
Pendleton Civil Service Act (1SS3), 404 
Alien Contract Labor Law (1SS5J, 405 
Presidential Succession Law (i 886), 407 
Interstate Commerce Act (18S7), 407 
electoral count law (1S87), 407 
McKinley Tariff Act (1890), 408 
Sherman Silver Act (1890), 409 
Anti-Trust Act (1890), 410 
Repeal of Sherman Silver Act (1893), 415 
Kepeal of " Force Bill " (1894), 417 
Wilson Tariff Act (1S94), 413 
Dingley Tariff Act (1897), 418 
annexation of Hawaii (1898), 413 
Uold Standard Act (1900), 422 
Reclamation Act (1002), 434 
Railway Rate Law (i9o(>), 429 
Meat Inspection Law (1906), 429 
Pure Food and Drugs Law (igoO), 429 
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act (1909), 432 
L'nderwood Tariff Act (1913), 441 
Federal Reserve Act (1913), 442 
Income Tax Law (1913), 440 
Panama Tolls Act (1914), 443 
Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914^ 444 
Federal Trade Commission Act(i9i4), 444 
Federal Farm Loan Act(i9i0), 451 
Congress, the Albany, 137 
First Continental, 178 
in the Revolution, 181 
Second Continental, 181 
Stamp Act, 172 

weaknessof,undertheArticles,2i6,2i7('note) 
Connecticut, Andros and the charter of, loi 

constitution of, 99 

settled, 99 

Western land claims, 214, 23S 
Conscription Act of iSi)^, 374 (note) 
Conser\'ation of natural resources, 435 
Constantinople taken by Turks, 5 
Constitution, first popular, in America, 100 
Constitution of United States, adoption of, 219 

analysis of, Appendix, p. xxi 

compromises of, 218 

effects of, 220 

steps leading to. Appendix, p. xxi 

text of, Appendix, p. v 
Constitution of United States, amendments to : 

first ten, 220 

Eleventh, 247 (note) 

Twelfth, 240 (note) 

Thirteenth, 386 

Fourteenth, 3S9 

Fifteenth, 394 

Sixteenth, 440 

Seventeenth, 440 
Constitutional Convention, 218 
Constitutions, early state, 185 
Construction, loose and strict, 232 
Continental Congress, First, 17S 

Second, 181 
Contract Labor Law, Alien, 405 
Convention, the Albanv, 137 

Hartford, 2-jh 

trade, at Annapolis, 217 



Conventions, formation of nominating, 287 

(note) 
Conway Cabal, 195 (note) 
Cook, Captain James, 257 
Cooper, J . F. , 302 
Cooper, l^eter, 292 
Copperheads^ 374 (note) 
Corn, found m America, 57 
Cornwallis, Lord Charles,' in New Jersey, igi 

in the South, 209 

surrender of, 21 1 
Coronado, expedition of, 29 
Cortes conquers Mexico, 27 
Cotton and the cotton gin, 239 
Cotton gin, invention of, 239 

influence on cotton manufacture, 240 

influence on the North, 240 

influence on slavery, 239 
Cotton mill, the first, 241 
Courts, national, 220 
Crawford, W. H., 287 (note) 
Creek Indians, war with, 271 
Crisis, of 1837, 305 

of 1857, 346 

of 1873, 396 

of 1S93, 414 

of 1907, ,}3i 
Cntical Penod of American Histor%', the, 

217 (note) 
Crittenden compromise, 349 
Croatoan, 40 (note) 
Cronipton, 240 (note) 
Cromwell, Oliver, 105 
Crown Point, taken by the English, 142 

captured by Burgoyne, u)6 
Crusades, 6 
Cuba, becomes a republic, 431 

destruction of the Maine, 420 

discovery of, 1 4 

intervention of 1906, 430 

and Ostend Manifesto, 340 

revolution of 1895, 419 

United States attempts to purchase, 340 
Culpepper, Lord Thomas, receives grant of 

Virginia, 70 
Cumberland Road, 2S4 

Custer, General G. A., killed by Indians, 397 
Czar of Russia and peace conference, 422 
Czolgosz, 425 

Da Gama, voyage of, 18 

Dale, colonial governor of Virginia, 67 

Daniel, Father, 48 

Dare, Virginia, 40 

Dartmouth College founded, 156 

Davenport, Reverend John, 100 

Davis, Captain John. 39 (note) 

Davis, Jefferson, president of the Confederacv, 

^•♦'' , „ 

captured, 3S2 

life of, 349 (note) 
Dearborn, Fort, 2'.s 
Dearborn, General, in War of 1812, 268 
De Ayllon, 28 
Debt, of the Civil War, 382 

imprisonment for, 117 

payment of, of the Revolutionary War. 

Debts, state, pa\'ment of. by Hamilton, 232 
Declaration of ' Independence, proclaimed, 
185 
text of, Apf)endix, p. i 



Hi 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Declaration of rights and grievances, 172 
Declaratory Act, 173 
De Courcelles, 50 
Deerfield attacked, 133 
De Gourgues's revenge, 38 
De Grasse, Admiral, 211 
De Kalb, General, 209 
Delaware, captured by the Dutch, 77 
granted to William Penn, 114 
seized by the English, 78 
settled by Swedes, 77 (note) 
Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, 67 
De Leon discovers Florida, 27 
Demarcation, line of, 17 , . , ^ , 

Democratic-Republicans, compared with Fed- 
eralists, 232 

Jefferson, leader of, 230 
Democrats, advocate free silver, 417 
advocate state rights, 232 
elect Cleveland, 406 
elect Wilson, 437 
favor independent treasury, 306 
name of, 292 

oppose United States Bank, 299 
and Texas, 315 
De Monts, Sieur, 34 
De Narvaez, 28 
Denver, Colorado, 346 
Department of Commerce, 42S 
Department of Labor, 440 
De Smet, Father, 318 
De Soto's expedition, 31 
Detroit, automobile industry in, 449 
besieged by Pontiac, 145 
settlement of, 12S 
in War of 1S12, 268 
De Vaca, journey of, 29 
Dewey, Admiral, 420 
Deza, Bishop, 12 (note) 
Diaz, Bartholomew, voyage of, 18 
Diaz, Porfirio, president of Mexico, 450 
Dictionary, first American, 302 
Dieskau attacks Fort Edward, 140 
Dingley Tariff, 418 
Dinwiddie, Governor, 136 
District of Columbia, formed, 249 

slavery in, 333 
Dixie Highway, 449 (note) 
Dominion of Canada, 435 
Dominion of New England, 9 1 
Dominique, Saint, Napoleon and, 254 
Donelson, Fort, 369 
Dongan, Governor Thomas, 79 
Dorchester Heights, 183 
Dorr rebellion, 311 

Douglas, Stephen A., candidate for presi- 
dency, 348 
debates with Lincoln, 346 
and Kansas-Nebraska Act, 337 
supports the Union, 358 (note) 
Dover, 'New Hampshire, settled, 96 
Draft riots, 374 (note) 
Drainage of swamp lands, 435 
Drake, Sir Francis, 38 
Dred Scott decision, 345 
Duke of York, 78 
Duke's laws, 78 

Duluth explores Northwest, 125 
Duluth settled, 128 
Duquesne, Fort, isiS 

captured by Forbes, 142 

name changed to Pittsburgh, 142 



Dutch, claim Connecticut, 75, 77, 99 

claim New Jersey, 82 

in New Netherland, 73 

lose New Netherland, 78 

seize Delaware, 77 
Dutch East India Company, 73 
Dutch West India Company, 75 

Eads's jetties, 400 

Early's raid, 379 

Earth, the, early ideas about, 9 

known in time of Columbus, map, p. vi 
Earthquake at San Francisco, 429 
East, interest in the, 6 
trade routes to the, 4 
Turks block way to the, 5 
East Jersey, 82 
F^dison, the inventor, 399 
Education, in New England colonies, 155 
in middle colonies, 160 
in southern colonies, 163 
Edward, Fort, 196 
Eight-Hour Railroad Law, 452 
Electoral Commission, 397 
Electoral Count Act, 407 
Electric light, 399 
Electric railway, 447 
Electric telegraph, 312 
Eleventh Amendment, 247 (note) 
Elizabeth, New Jersey, founded, 82 
Emancipation Proclamation, 372 

completed, 387 
Embargo Act, 260 
Emerson, R. W., 302 
Emigrarion to the West, 176, 2S4 
England and the Confederacy, 357, 362 ^ 

England's claim to America, through Cabot : 

voyage, 16 
English explorations, 38 

first permanent settlement, 66 
Era of Good Feeling, 278 
Ericson, Leif, 2 
Ericsson, John, 366 
Erie Canal, 289 
Ether, use of, 326 
Europe in fifteenth century, 3 
"Evangeline," poem, 140 (note) 
Excise tax, 238 

Expansion of territory : Alaska, 392, 444 
Florida Purchase, 278 
Gadsden Purchase, 336 
Guam, 422 
Hawaii, 413 

Louisiana Purchase, 254 
Mexican cession, 324 
Oregon, 317 

Panama Canal Zone, 426 
Philippines, 422 
Porto Rico, 422 
Texas, 3>5 
Virgin Islands, 455 
Explorations : Dutch, 72 
English, 38 
French, 32 
Gray's, 257 

Lewis and Clark's, 255 
Pike's, 258 (note) 
polar, 432 (note) 
Portuguese, g, iS 
Spanish, 26 
Express, pony, 30S 
Express system established, 307 



INDEX 



liii 



Falls of St. Anthony, 124 

Kaneuil Hall, 150, 172, 17.1 (note) 

Farm Loan Act, 451 

Farmer, legislation to aid the, 451 

Farmers' Alliance, 411 

Farmers' Grange, 411 

Farragut, enters Mobile Bay, 379 

takes New Drleans, 370 
" Father of the Constitution," 265 (note) 
Federal Child Labor Law, 452 
Federal Flections Act, repeal of, 417 
Federal Farm Loan Act, 451 
Federal Reserve Act, 442 
Federal Trade Commission, 444 
Federalist, The, 2ig 
Federalists, the, 230 
Federation of Labor, 410 
P'ield, Cyrus W., 391 
Fifteenth Amendment, 394 
" P'ifty-four forty or fight,"' 319 (note) 
Filipinos, the, 422 

Fillmore, Millard, becomes president, 333 
Fire in Boston, 394 
Fire in Chicago, 394 ' 
Fire in San Francisco, 429 
Fitch, John, and steamboat, 261 
Five Intolerable Acts, 177 
Five Nations, the, or Iroquois, 55 
Flag, evolution of the American, 198 

first raising of the American, 199 

the Confederate, 349 
Flatboats on the Ohio, 279, 285 
Florida, admission of, 332 (note) 

De Leon in, 26 

De Soto in, 3 1 

discovered, 27 

England cedes, to Spain, 144 (note) 

French and Spaniards in, 36 

Jackson's march in, 278 

the name of, 27 

Religious Orders in, 46 

secedes, 34S 

Seminole war in, 301 

Spain cedes, to England, 144 

United States purchases, in 1819, 278 
Florida, the Confederate cruiser, 362 
Food and Drugs Act, Pure, 430 
Foote, Commodore, at P'orts Henry and Donel- 
son, 369 

captures Island Number 10, 370 

captures Memphis, 370 
Forbes, General, takes Fort Duquesnc, 142 
Force Act, the, 417 
Forts : 

Amsterdam, 75 

Caroline, 36 

Christina, Delaware, 77 (note) 

Crown Point. 142. 19^ 

Dearborn (Chicago), 268, 297 

Donelson, 369 

Duquesnc, 13& 

Edward, 196 

Frontenac, 142 

Henry, 369 

McAllister, 378 

McHenry, 273 

Meigs. 270 

Mimms, 271 

Moultrie, 184 

Necessity. 137 

Niagara, 142 

Orange (.\lbany), 74 



Pitt (Pittsburgh), 142 

Schuyler, 197 

Stanwix, 197 

Sullivan, 184 

Sumter, 354 

Sutter, 330 

Ticonderoga, 141, iSo, 196 

Washington, 190 

William Henry. 141 

William and Mary, 179 
Forty-niners, the, 330 
Fountain of Youth, 26 
Fourteenth Amendment, the, 3S9 
Fox, tieorge, founder of Quakers, 83 (note) 
Fox River, Marquette on, 122 
France, aids us in the Revolution, 201 

early explorations by, 32 

first permanent settlcrnent by, 34 

later explorations by, 121 

and Mexico, 387 

presents Statue of Liberty, 406 

recognizes our independence, 201 

sells Louisiana, 254 

trouble with, in 1797, 246 

wars between England and, in America, 131 
Franciscans, the, in California, 32S 

in the East, 6 
Franklin, Renjamin, arranges treaty with 
France, 201 

in Constitutional Convention, 21S (note) 

and Declaration of Independence, 186 
(note) 

life of, 137 (note) 

plans colonial union, 137 
Free silver, 417 

" Free Trade and Sailors' Rights," 267 
Freedmen's Bureau, 389 
Freedom of the press, 80 (note), 160 
Freedom of worship, in Constitution, 220 

denied to Catholics, 1S5 (note) 
Free-Soilers, 331 

Fremont, candidate for president. 344 
French, the, explore the West, 121 

found Mobile, 128 

found New Orleans, 12S 

found Quebec, 34 

lose Canada, 144 

take possession of Louisiana, i2''> 
French and English colonization compared, 129 
French and Indian War, the, 135 
French Revolution, the, 241 
Friends, the, or Quakers, S3 (note) 

in Massachusetts, 92 

in Pennsylvania, 1 14 
Frobisher, the voyage of, 38 
Frolic, the, 269 

Frontenac, governor of Canada, 122, 124 
Frontenac, Fort, captured, 142 
Fugitive slaves, in Compromise of 2850, 332 

and the Constitution, 21S 

and the Northwest Ordinance. 214 

and Underground Railroad, 334 
Fulton's steamboat, 2'>i 
Fundamental Orders, the, 99 
Fur trade, 317 

Gadsden Purchase, 336 

Gage, General, iSi 

Gallitzin, Prince, 23S 

Galtier, Father, 124 (note) 

Galveston, commission government in, 445 

Gama, Da, reaches India, 18 



liv 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Garfield, elected president, 402 

assassinated, 404 
Gamier, Father, 5° , , ^ 
Garrison, William Lloyd, 296 

attacked by mob, 298 

publishes Liberator, 296 
Gaspee destroyed, 176 
Gates, General Horatio, 199 
Genet, Citizen, 242 
Genoa, Italy, trade route from, 4 
George II of England, 117 , 

George III, acknowledges our mdependence, 

character of, 167 (note) 
hires Hessians, 192 
and the Revolution, 167 (note) 
statue of, pulled down, 188 
taxes the colonies, 170 
Georgia, settlement of, 117 
Ghent, treaty of, 274 

Gibault, Father, 204 , . . . , 

Gibbons against Ogden, decision in case of 

261 (note) 
Gila River, 336 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 39 
Gin, the cotton, 239 
Gladstone favors Confederacy, 362 
Gnupson, Eric, Bishop of Gardar, 3 
Gold, discovery of, in Alaska, 423 (note) 
in California, 330 
in Colorado, 346 

in Nevada, t,4> ^ ,, , , ^ s 
Gomez, Estevan, in New \ork, 73 (note) 
Goodyear and India rubber, 326 
Gorges, grant to, 96 
Gosnold, explorer, 41 . 
Government, of the colonies, 151 
of the Northwest Territory, 215 
of the United States, 219 
Grand Model, the, 112 
Grant, General, administrations of, 393 
in Civil War, 369 
on Mexican War, 320 (note) 
life of, 393 J 

Grasse, Admiral Francois, Count de, 211 
Gray, Captain, reaches Columbia River, 257 
Great Britain frees slaves in West Indies, 296 

("Ote) , , , N 

Great Lakes, discovered, 121 (note) 
first steamboat on, 124 
in War of 1812, 27: 
Great law of Penn, 115 
Great Salt Lake, 307 
Great War, the, 45^ 
Greeley, Horace, 395 
Green Mountain Boys, 180 
Greenbacks, 401 

Greene, General Nathanael, 210 
Greenland settled, 2 
Greenville, treaty of, 237 
Gregorian calendar, 136 (note) 
Guadalupe- Hidalgo, treaty of, 324 
Guam annexed, 422 

Giicrribrc, the^ and the Constitution, 269 
Guiteau, 404 

Gulf of St. Lawrence explored, 33 
Gunpowder invented, 8 

Haceta, 256 (note) 
Hague Peace Conference, 422 
Haiti, island of, 14. 25; , . 
Hale, Captain Nathan, 1S9 (note) 



Hal/ Moon, the, 73 . . 

Hamilton, Alexander, and the Constitution, 219 
founds United States bank, 234 
killed by Aaron Burr, 258 
leader of Federalists, 230 (note) 
hfe of, 233 (note) 
pays national debts, 232 
Secretary of Treasury, 230 (note) 
Hamilton, General, and Clark's expedition, 204 
Hamlin, Hannibal, vice president, 348 (note) 
Hancock, General W. S., at Gettysburg, 374 

nominated for president, 402 
Hancock, John, 179 
Hargreaves, 240 (note) 
Harmar, General, 237 
Hamden founds express business, 307 
Harpers Ferry captured by John Brown, 347 
Harrison, Benjamin, administration of, 40S 

life of, 40S (note) 
Harrison,General\V.H.,administrationof,309 
life of, 309 (note) 
at Tippecanoe, 266 
in War of 1812, 270 
Hartford, Dutch fort at,' 99 

foundation of, 99 
Hartford Convention, 276 
Harvard College founded, 156 
Havana, captured by the English, 144 

Maine destroyed at, 419 
Haverhill attacked, 133 
Hawaii, annexed, 413 
revolution in, 413 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 302 
Hayes, R. B., administration of, 39S 
disputed election of, 397 
life of, 398 (note) 
vetoes silver coinage act, 401 
withdraws troops from South, 39S 
Hayne debates with Webster, 204 
Hennepin, Father, Iranciscan missionary, 124 
Henrietta Maria, Maryland named for, 104 
Henry, Fort, taken by Grant, 3O9 
Henry, Patrick, 171 
Henry, Prince, of Portugal, 9 
Henry VII of England, 16 
Herkimer, General Nicholas, 197 
Flessians, 192 

" Higher law," the, and slavery, 333 (note) 
Historians, American, 302 
Hoe and the printing press, 327 
Holland , establishes settlements in America, 85 

Pilgrims in, 84 
Holy Alliance, the, 282 
Homestead Law of 1862, 371 
Homestead strike, 410 , , , ^ , ,. „ 
Hood, General J. B.. at battle of Franklin, 378 
defeated at Atlanta, 377 
at Nashville, 378 
succeeds Johnston, 377 
Hooker, GeneralJoseph,atChancellorsville, 373 
Hopkins, Esek, Commodore, 206 
House of Burgesses of Virginia, 70 
House of Representatives, chooses president, 

^digest of constitutional provisions for. Ap- 
pendix, p. xxii 
Houston, General Sam, 314 
Howe, Ellas, invents sewing machine, 32^ 
Howe, Lord, British admiral, 189 
Hudson, Henns explores Hudson River, 72 
Huerta, General, in Mexico, 450 
Hughes, Archbishop, 356 



IXDFA 



Iv 



HuRuenots arrive in America, 36 

Hull, (.,'aptain Isaac, 20q 

Hull, Captain William, surrenders Detroit, 267 

Huron missions, 48 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 91 

Iberville founds Mobile, 128 

Iceland, Columbus in, S 

Idaho admitted, 408 

Illinois becomes a state, 279 

Illinois countr>', Clark's expedition to, 206 

Immigration from Kurope, 327 

Impeachment, of President Johnson, 391 

Imperialism, issue of, 424 

Importation of slaves forbidden (1808), 262 

Impressment of American sailors, 260 

Income tax, 440 

Indentured servants, 69 

Independence, Declaration of, 185 

text of, Appendix, p. i 
Independence of United States secured, 214 
Independence Hall of Philadelphia, i,S7 
Independent treasurv- established, 306 
Indian Territory forrned, 429 

Oklahoma formed from, 429 
Indiana, admission of, 277 
Indians, the Algonquian, 54 

Captain John Smith and the, 67 

character, 58 

families, 53 

the Iroquois, 55 

the Iroquois and the English, 134 (note) 

the Iroquois and the French, 35, 131 

King Philip, 92 

land cessions by, 237 

massacres by, 93, 132, 133 

Miles Standish and the, 87 

mode of government, 53 

mode of life, 54 

name, 53 

number, at discover)', 55 (note) 

Penn and the, 116 

religion, 59 

in the Revolution, 203 

Roger Williams and the, 90 

self-control, 57 

totems, 56 

trails of the, 335 

wars with Western. 396 

what they taught the colonists, 60 
Indies, the, America believed to he part of, 14 

trade of Kurope with, 4 
Initiative in legislation, 443 
Injunction, use of, 415 
Insurrection of slaves, 296 
Intercolonial Committees of Correspondence, 

178 
Interstate Commerce, United States Supreme 

Court on, 261 (note) 
Interstate Commerce Act, 407 
Intolerable Acts, the Five, 177 
Inventions : 

automobile, 449 

compass, 7 

cotton gin, 239 

electric light, 399 

gunpowder, 8 

'■ mule," 240 (note) 

printing, 7 

printing press, 327 (note) 
propeller, 3 27 (note) 
reaper, 325 



revolver, 327 (note) 

sewing machine, 326 

spinning jenny, 240 (note) 

steam engine, 291 (note) 

steamboat, 261 

telegraph, 312 

telephone, 398 

vulcanization of rubber, 326 

water frame, 240 (note) 
Inventions, American, record of, 450 
I ronclads, use of, 3O6 

Iroquois cede Ohio Valley to English, i34(note) 
Irrigation, 434 
Irving. Washington, 302 
Isabella of Castile and Columbus, 1 1 
Italians as navigators, 9 (note) 

Jackson, Fort, 370 

Jackson, General Andrew, administration of, 293 

defeats Seminoles, 278 

life of, 293 (note) 

and nullification, 295 

removal of Indians, 300 , 

Specie Circular, 300 

and "spoils system," 294 

and United States Rank, 299 

victory of, at New Orleans, 273 

victory of, at Tohopeka, 27 1 
Jackson, General T. J. (Stonewall), at Dull 
Run, 358 

at Chancellorsville, 373 

death of, 373 

life of, 3 58 (note) 

in Shenandoah Valley, 364 
James I, 64 
James II, 79 

Jamestown, Virgjinia, settled, 65 
Japan, Perry's visit to, 342 

treaty with Russia, 43 1 (note) 
Jasper, Sergeant, 184 
Jay's treaty with England, 242 
Jefferson, administration of, 251 

and Declaration of Independence, 185 

elected vice president, 246 

first Secretary of State, 230 (note) 

life of, 251 (note) 

purchases Louisiana, 254 

writes Kentucky resolutions, 248 
Jersey, East, 82 

West, 82 
Jesuit missionaries, in California, 327 

in Florida, 46 

Jesuit ReUniotis, the, 4S (note) 

in Maine, 52 

in New France, 47 

among the Onondagas, 50 
Jogues, Father Isaac, 48 
Johnson, Andrew, administration of, 386 

impeachment and acquittal of, 391 

life of, 386 (note) 

plan of reconstmction, 3.'^8 
Johnson, Sir William, in Revolution, 135, 142 
Johnston, General A. S., killed at Shiloh, 370 
Johnston, General J. E., in Peninsular Cam- 
paign, 31.3 

succeeds P-ragg, 376 
succeeded by Hood, 377 
restored to command. 3S1 
surrender of, 3S1 
Jollietand Marquette expedition. 122 
Jones. Captain John Paul, 207 
Juan de Fuca, 250 (note) 



Ivi 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Kansas, admitted as free state, 342 
civil war in, 342 
Jolin Brown in, 342 
struggle for, 341 
Kansas-Nebraska Act, 337 
Kay, John, 240 (note) 
Kearny, General Stephen W., 320, 330 
Kearsarge, the, sinks the A la 611 iim, 379 
Kentucky, admission to Union, 235 

Boone in, 204 
Kentucky and Virginia resolutions, 24S 
Key, Francis Scott, writes " The Star-Spangled 

Banner," 273 
King George's War, 134 
King Philip's War, 92 
King William's War, 131 , , , 

King's College (Columbia) founded, 160 
Knights of Labor, 410 
Know-Nothing party, 343 
Kosciuszko, General, 194 
Ku-Klux Klan, 390 

Labor, American Federation of, 410 

Department of, 440 

Knights of, 410 

protection of American, 275 

strikes of, 398, 410 
Labor Law, Alien Contract, 405 
Labor unions, development of, 410 
Ladrone Islands discovered, 20 
Lafayette, Congress cedes land to, 2S4 

revisits United States, 283 

in Revolution, 193 
Lake Champlain, battle of, 100, 272 

discovered, 34 
Lake Huron discovered, 121 (note) 
Lalemant, Father, 48 
Land, cession of, by Indians, 237, 300 

cessions of, by states to the United States, 
2.5,238 

drainage of swamp, 435 



grant 



of, under Homestead Act, 434 



irrigation of, 434 
Land system, 215 (note) .... 

La Salle, French explorer, on Mississippi, 124 
Las Casas and the Indians, 15 (note) 
Latin-America, development of, 426 
Laudonniere, 36 
Lawrence, Kansas, attack on, 342 

settled, 342 
Lawrence, Captain James, 270 
Laws of Parliament : Declaratory Act, 173 

duty on tea, 176 

the Intolerable Acts, 177 

Navigation Acts, 168 

Quebec Act, 146, 178 

Stamp Act, 170 

Townshend Acts, 173 

writs of assistance, 169 
Lecompton constitution, 342 
Lee, General Charles, 191 
Lee, General Robert E., at Antietam, 365 

at Chancellorsville, 373 

commands Confederate armies, 364 

at Gettysburg, 374 

at second battle of Bull Run, 365 

surrenders, 381 

at the Wilderness, 379 
Lee, Richard H., 1S5 
Legislative assembly, first, in America, 70 
Leif Ericson reaches America, 2 
Leisler, Governor, 79 



Lewis and Clark's expedition, 255 
Liberator, Garrison publishes the, 296 
Liberia, 279 (note) 
Liberty, Statue of, 406 
Liberty party, birth of, 298 (note) 
Lincoln, Abraham, administration of, 353 
assassination of, 382 
debates with Douglas, 346 
emancipates the slaves, 372 
life of, 348 (note) 
plan of reconstruction, 388 
reelection of, 380 
Lincoln, General Benjamin, 20S, 213 (note) 
Lincoln Highway, 449 (note) 
Line of Demarcation, 16 
Lisbon, Columbus at, g 
Literature, American, 301 
Livingston, Robert R., 229 
Locke, John, and the Grand Model, 112 
Locomotive, the first American, 292 
Log-cabin campaign, 310 
London Company, the, 64 
Lone Star Republic, 314 (note) 
Longfellow, H. W.,302 
Loom power, 240 (note) 
Loose construction, 232 
Los Angeles, 322 (note) 
Louisburg, capture and restoration of, 134 

recaptured by English, 141 
Louisiana, admission of, 277 
claimed by the French, 126 
origin of name, 128 
purchased by the United States, 254 
secedes, 349 . . „ 

Louisiana Purchase E.xposition, 42S 
Lowell, city of, 275 
Lowell, F.'C, 275 
Lowell, J. R., 302 
Loyalists, or Tories, 184 
Lundy, Benjamin, and abolition, 296 

McClellan, General, 3S9 
McClure, Captain Robert, 39 (note) 
McComb, General, 272 
McCormick reaper, the, 325 
McKinley, assassination of, 4:5 

first administration of, 41S 

life of, 418 (note) 

second administration of, 425 
McLoughlin, Doctor John, 31S 
Madero, president of Mexico, 450 
Madison, administration of, 26; 

'■ Father of the Constitution," 265 (note) 

life of, 26i (note) 

Virginia resolutions by, 248 
Magellan, discovers Philippine Islands, 20 

voyage around the world, 20 
Magellan, Strait of, 20^ 
Maine, admitted, 97, 281 

boundary dispute with England, 311 

missions of, 51 

and Missouri Compromise, 281 

permanently settled, 97 

Popham colony in, 6; 

united with Massachusetts, 97 
Maine, the, destroyed at Havana, 419 
Manhattan Island, purchased, 75 

settled, 72 
Manifesto, the Ostend, 340 
Manila, captured by English, 144 

taken by Americans, 420 
Manitou, the, 59 



INDEX 



Ivii 



Marco Polo, 6 

Marcus, Friar (Father ^fark), 29 
Marietta settled, 21(1, 2.1S 
Marque and reprisal, letters of, 362 
Marquette, Father, 122 
Marshall, Chief Justice, 250 

important decisions of. 254 (note) 
Marjland, becomes a royal province, 107 

Catholics lose rights in, 107 

restored to the Haltimores, 108 

settled by Catholics, 102 

Toleration Act of, 105 
Mason and Dixon's Line surveyed, 116 (note) 
Mason and Slidell captured, 361 
Massachusetts, Pilgnms land in, S4 
Massachusetts I!ay colony, the, SS 

first charter of, 89 

Boston settled, 90 

loss of charter of, 93 

Puritan rule in, 89 

a royal province, 94 

second charter of, 94 

war with Indians, 92 
Massachusetts circular letter, 174 
ISIassacre, the Boston, 174 

at Cherrv' V'alley, 203 

at Wyoming, 203 
Massasoit, 92 

Matthew, Father, and temperance, 296 
Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, 3S7 
MayJJcnver, the voyage of the, 85 
Mayflower Compact, 85 
Meade, General G. C, 374 
Meat Inspection Act, 4:^0 
Mediterranean Sea, piracy on, 252 
Meeting, town, 154 
Menendez in Florida, 37 
Merit system, the, 405 
Mexican land cession, 324 
Mexican War, tht, 320 

results of, 324 
Mexico, civil war in, 450 

conquered by Cortes, 27 

declares independence, 283 (note) 

loses Texas, 314 

trouble with, in 1911, 450 
Michigan admitted as a free state, 301 
Middle colonies, life in, 158 
Milan Decree, 259 
Milwaukee, settlement of, 277 
Minneapolis, 125 
Minnesota admitted, 346 

Mint, United States, decimal system of coin- 
age, 234 

established, 234 
Minuit, Governor, 75 
Missionaries, Catholic, in New France, 121 

in Oregon, 31S 

in Spanish colonies. 46 
Mississippi, state of. admitted, 277 
Mississippi River, De .Soto reaches, 32 

explored by the French. 126 

explored by Jolliet and Marquette, 122 

mouth of, deepened, 400 

Pineda on, ^2 (note) 
Missouri Compromise of 1820, 2S0 

repealed in 1854, 339 
Missouri River explored, 255 
Mobile. Farragojt attacks, 379 

founded, 12S 
Modoc Indians, 39(1 
Mohawk Indians, 203 



Molasses Act, 169 

Money, decimal system of coinage, 234 

first mint, 234 

gold standard adopted, 422 

greenbacks in Civil War, 401 

Indian, or wampum. 59 

specie payment resumed, 401 
Monroe, James, administration of, 27S 

Kra of Good Feeling, 278 

life of, 278 (note) 
Monroe Doctrine, 283 
Montana, admission, 408 
Montcalm, General, 142 
Montesino, Father Antonio, 15 (note) 
Montgomery, first capital of Confederacy, 349 
Montgomery, General, 1S2 
Montreal, founded, 33 

surrenders to Knglish, 143 (note) 
Morgan, General, 210 
Mormons, emigrate to Salt Lake, 307 ' 

rise of, 307 
Morris, Robert, 192 
Morse, invents telegraph, 312 
Morton, Dr., discovers use of ether, 327 
Motley. J. L., historian, 302 
Moultrie, Colonel, 184 
Moultrie, P'ort, 1S4 
Mound Builders, the so-called, 55 
Mount \ernon, home of Washington, 248 
Mowing machine invented, 325 
"Mug\vumps.,'" the, 406 

Napoleon I sells Louisiana, 254 
Napoleon 1 1 1 and Mexico, 387 
Narragansett Bay colonized, 90 
NarvAez, Panfilo, 28 
National conventions, 287 (note) 
National Road, 284 
Naturalization, process of, 433 
Naval Academy, 319 
Navigation laws, 71, 168 
Navy, in Barbary wars, 252 

in Civil War, 357 

in Revolution, 206 

in .Spanish War, 420 

in War of 1812, 266 

in war with France, 247 
Nebraska, admitted, 339 

a territon,-, 338 
Negro slaver>', and Dred Scott decision, 345 

introduced into Fnglish .America, <>9 
Negroes, become voters, 394 

emancipation of, 3^7 
Neutrality, proclaimed by President Wilson, 

Washington's proclamation of, 242 
Nevada, admission of, 377 
New Albion, 38 
New Amsterdam, 75 
Newark, New Jersey, settled, 82 
New F.ngland, favors nullification, 248 (note) 

forms Hartford Convention, 27b 

opposes War of 1812, 27') 
New F.ngland Confederation, 91 
New France, in colonial wars, 131 

founded, 34 

missionaries of, 47 

surrendered to Briti.sh, 143 
New Hampshire, settled, </i 

united to Massachusetts, 07 
New Haven, colonial government, uk. 

settled, 100 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



New Jersey, becomes a royal colony, 83 

claimed by the Dutch, 82 

settled by the English, 82 
New Mexico, admission of, 434 

exploration of, 30 
New Netherland, claimed by the Dutch, 72 

Manhattan Island purchased, 75 

name changed to New York, 78 

Patroons in, 75 

seized by the English, 78 
New C)rleans, captured by Farragut, 370 

founded, 12S 

importance of position of, 254 

with the Louisiana Purchase, 254 
Newspaper, first, in American colonies, 157 
New Sweden, or Delaware, captured by the 
Dutch, 77 

settled, 77 (note) 

taken by the English, 78 
New York settled, 75 

New York City, capital of the United States, 
22g 

purchase of Manhattan Island, 75 

in the Revolution, 189 

Washington inaugurated in, 229 

water system of, 447 
Niagara Falls, 124 
Niagara River, 268 
Nicolet, explorations of, 121 (note) 
Nonconformists, 84 
Non- Intercourse Act, 260 

suspended, 265 
North America discovered by Cabot, 16 

claimed by England, 16 
North Carolina, Regulators in, 175 

settled, 1 1 1 
North Dakota admitted, 408 
North Pole discovered, 432 (note) 
Northern Pacific Railroad, 378 
Northmen reach America, i 
Northwest explored by French, 129 
Northwest Passage, search for, 39 (note) 
Northwest Territpry, 214 
Notre Dame University founded, 126 (note) 
Nullification, in Virginia and Kentucky reso- 
lutions, 248 

and Calhoun, 294 
Nullification ideas, in Massachusetts, 248 
(note) 

in Pennsylvania, 248 (note) 

in South Carolina, 294, 295 

Office, removals from, 293, 390, 405 
Oglethorpe, General James, founds Georgia, 

117 
Ohio, admission of, 238, 252 

Cincinnati founded, 238 

first settlement in, 238 

immigration to, 176 

part of Northwest Territory, 214 

under French rule, 146 
Ohio Company, the, 136, 215 
Oil, found in Pennsylvania, 346 
Oklahoma admitted, 429 

''Old Hickory," name of Jackson, 293 (note) 
"Old Rough and Ready," name of Zachary 

Taylor, 332 (note) 
Omnibus Bill, 332 
"Open door" in China, 424 
Orange, Fort, founded, 74 
Orders in Council, 259 
Ordinance for Northwest Territory, 215 



Oregon, admitted, 346 

annexation of, 319 

discovered by Drake, 38 

joint occupation, 317 

our claim to, 317 

reached by Captain Gray, 257 

a territory, 319 
Oriskany in Revolution, 197 
Osceola, Indian chief, 301 
Ostend Manifesto, 340 
Otis, James, ibg 
Ottawa Indians, 51 
Ottawa missions, 51 

Pacific coast, Drake explores, 38 

Lewis and Clark reach, 256 

missions on, 328 

Russians on, 256 
Pacific Ocean, cable laid across, 392 

discovered by Balboa, 19 

named bj Magellan, 20 

pony express to, 30S 

railway completed to, 394 
Pacific railroads, land grants to, 371 
Packet ships, 312 

Paine's "Common Sense," 1S5 (note) 
Pakenham, General Edward, 273 
Panama, canal across, 425 

discovery of, 19 
Panama expositions, 448 
Pan-American Congress, 408 
Panics, business : of 1837, 305 

of 1857, 346 

of 1873- 396 

of 1893, 414 

of 1907, 431 
Paris, treaty of, (1763), 144 ; (1783), 214 
Parker, A. B., nominated for presidency, 428 
Parkman, Francis, 302 
Parliament, corruption of, 167 (note) 

representation in, 172 (note) 
Parties, rise of, 230 
Pascua Florida, 27 
Pastorius, 115 (note) 
Patent Office, 450 
Patroons, 75 

Pawtucket, cotton mill in, 241 
Payne Tariff Act, 432 
Peace offer by Lord Howe, 189 
Peary reaches North Pole, 432 (note) 
Peggy Stewart burned, 177 
Peking, siege of, 424 
Pemaquid founded, 97 '' 
Pemberton, General, 375 
Pendleton Civil Service Act, 404 
Peninsular campaign, 363 
Penn, William, founds Pennsylvania, 114 
Pennsylvania, Frame of Government of, 115 

granted to Penn, 114 

labor troubles in, 398, 410 

oil discoveries in, 346 

Philadelphia founded, 115 

settled, 115 

treatv with Indians, 116 

Whisky Rebellion in, 238 
Pequot Indians, loi 
Perez, Juan, aids Columbus, it 
Perry, Commodore M. C, in Japan, 342 
Perry, O. H., victory on Lake Erie, 271 
Personal Liberty Laws, 334 
Pet banks, 299 
Petersburg, siege of, 380 



INDEX 



Petition to Congress, right of, jgS 

Petroleum discovered, 34(1 

Philadelphia, capital of United States, 233 

captured by ISritish, 195 

founded, 115 
Philippine Islands, cession of, 422 

discovered, 20 
Philip, King, qi 
Phipps, Sir William, 132 
Physical features of United States, 225 
Pickett, (leneral G. E., at Gettysburg^ 374 
Pierce, administration of, 337 

life of, 337 (note) 
Pike's explorations, 25S (note) 
Pilgrims, come to America, 85 

in Kngland, S4 

in Holland, S4 
Pinckney. C. C., minister to France, 246 
Pineda, voyage of, 32 (note) 
Pirates, war on African, 252 
Pitt, Lord Chatham, 141, 171 
Pittsburgh, site of, 142 
Pizarro conouers Peru, 28 (note) 
Piatt Amendment, 430 
Plymouth, joins Confederation, 91 

settled by Pilgrims, 86 
Plymouth Company, the, S6 
Plymouth Rock, 86 (note) 
Pocahontas, 67 (note) 
Poets, American, 302 
Poles in the Revolution, 194 
Political parties : Anti-Federalist, 230 

Democratic, 292 

Democratic-Republican, 230 (note), 232 

Federalist, 230 (note) 

Free-Soil, 331 

Mugwumps, 406 

Native American, or Know-Nothing, 343 

Populist, 412 

Progressive, 437 

Republican, 340 

Whig, 309 
Polk, administration of, 317 

life of, 317 (note) 
Polo, Marco, 6 
Ponce de Leon. 26 
Pontiac, conspiracy of, 144 
Pony express, 30S 
" Poor Richard's Almanac," 160 
Pope, General John, 365 
Pope, the, divides the world, 16 
Popham colony in Maine, 65 
"Popular" or "squatter" sovereignty, 333 

(note), 339 
Portage. 59 
Portland, .Maine, 97 
Porto Rico annexed, 422 
Port Royal (Nova Scotia) founded, 33 
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, founded, 96 

treaty of. 43 1 (note) 
Portuguese, explore coast of Africa, 9 

reach India, 18 

secure Brazil. 18 
Potawatami Indians, 126 (note) 
Powhatan, 67 (note) 
Prescott, W. H., 302 
Presidential Succession .Act. 4c/> 
Presidents, table of. Appendix, p. xxv 
Press, freedom of the. 80 (note), 160 
Princeton College, I'o 
Pring, .Martin, voyage of, 41 
Printing, invention of, 7 



Privateers, in Civil War, 362 

in Revolution, 2uO 

in War of I'-i^, 270 
Proclamation Line, 145 
Proctor, General, 270 
Progressive party, the, 437 
Proprietary colonies, 152 
Protective tariff, 28S 
Protestant Reformation, 84 (note) 
Providence, Rhode Island, settled, 90 
Proviso, Wilmot, 324 
Pueblo Indians, 55 
Puget Sound, 257 
Pulaski, Count Casimir, 194 
Pullman strike, 415 
Pure Food and Drugs Act, 429 
Puritans, in Connecticut, 100 

in Fngland, SS 

in Maryland, 107 

in .Massachusetts, 88 

Quakers, the, belief of. S3 (note) 

in Massachusetts, 92 

in New Jersey, 83 

in Pennsylvania, 114 

punished by Puritans, 92 

treaty of, with Indians, 116 
Quartering Act, 177 
Quebec, Arnold's expedition to, 182 

capture of, by English in 1629. 48 

capture of, by English under Wolfe, 143 

expedition against, 1S2 

founded, 34 
Quebec Act, the, 146 
Queen Anne's War, 132 
Quincy, Josiah, favors secession, 254 (note) 

Radical Republicans, 391 
Railways, first American, 291 

first transcontinental, 394 

Interstate Commerce Act, 407 

land grants to, 371 

Northern Pacific, 378 

Railway Rate Act, 429 • 
Raisin River massacre, 270 
Raleigh, founds a colony in Virginia, 40 

sends expedition to Virginia, 39 

visits South America, 41 (note) 
Ra>'Tnbault, Father, 48 
Reaper, invention of, 325 
Rebellions: Bacon's, 71 

Claiborne's, 105 

Dorr's, 311 

Leisler's, 79 

Nat Turner's, 296 

Shays's, 2 16 

the Southern, 353 

Whisky, 23S 
Recall in cities, 444 
Reciprocity with Canada, 436 
Reconstruction, completed, 389 

Congressional plan of, 389 

Johnson's plan of, 3S8 

Lincoln's plan of, 388 

troops withdrawn, 398 
Referendum in state legislation, 444 
Regulators, the. 17; 

Religion, in the colonies, 63, 68 (note), 77, 79, 
82, 83. 84. 04, 9;, 9<1, 100, 102. 103, 104, 105, 
106, 107. 108. io<;i, 1 12, I ij, iiS 

of the Indians, 59 

as motive of explorations, 10 



Ix 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Religious liberty, in Northwest Territor\', 215 

provisions of the Constitution regarding, 
220, Appendix p. xvii 
Republicans, or Democratic-Republicans, 230 
(note), 232 

the present party, 340 
Resolutions, Virginia and Kentucky, 24S 
Resources, conservation of natural, 434 
Resumption of specie payment, 401 
Revere, Paul, ride of, 179 
Revolution, the American, action of First Con- 
tinental Congress, 178 

battles of the Revolution. See Battles 

causes of, 167 

chart of battles of, 224 

the destruction of tea, 176 

end of, 213 

foreign help in the, 201 

formation of Continental Army, 181 

the navy and the, 206 

Second Continental Congress, 181 

the Stamp Act, 170 

Tories in the, 1S4 

treaty with France, 201 

the Writs of Assistance, i6g 
Revolver, invention of, 327 (note) 
Rhode Island, religious freedom in, 109 

restriction of suffrage in, no, 311 

settled, 90, 109 
Ribaut, John, 36 

Richard, Reverend Gabriel, 262 (note) 
Richelieu, Cardinal, 34 
Richmond, battles around, 363, 379 

fall of, 381 
Right of search and England, 259 
Rights and grievances, declaration of, 172 
Riots : the draft, 374 (note) 

in Pittsburgh, 39S 

the Whisky, 238 
Roads: Cumberland, or National, Road, 284 

Lincoln and Dixie highways, 449 (note) 
Robertson, James, enters Tennessee, 236 
Rochambeau, Count de, 212 
Rocky Mountains' discovered by the French, 

129 
Rolfe, John, in Virginia, 68 
Roman Catholic religion, Columbus and, 10 

in England, 63, 102 

and Know-Nothings, 343 

in Maryland, 105 

persecuted in New York, 80 
Roosevelt, administration of, 425 

hfe of, 425 
Rosecrans, General W. S., 371, 375. 376 
Ross, General, bums Washington, 273 

killed, 273 
Rough Riders, 421 (note) 
Royal colonies defined, 152 
Royalists or Cavaliers, 70 (note) 
Rubber, vulcanization of, 326 
Russell, Lord John, 358 (note) 
Russia, in North America, 256 

sells Alaska, 392 
Ryswick, treaty of, 132 

Sacajawea, 256 (note) 

Sachem, 56 

St. Augustine founded, 37 

St. Brendan, i 

St. Die, 19 

St. Lawrence River, the, discovered, 33 

St. Leger, General, 197 



St. Louis exposition, 42S 

St. Marys, Maryland, founded, 105 

St. Paul, 124 (note), 125 

St. Philip, Fort, 370 

Salem, settled, 88 

witchcraft in, 95 
Salt Lake City founded, 307 
San Diego, exposition in, 44S 

mission at, 328 
San Francisco, earthquake in, 429 

exposition in, 448 

foundation of, 3 28 
Sanitary Commission in Civil War, 359 
San Martin, General, 427 
San Salvador, island of, 14 
Santa Anna, 321 

Santa Fe founded, 31 (note), 322 (note) 
Santa Fe trail, 335 
Sault Sainte Marie, 48 
Savannah, captured by British, 208 

founded, 117 

taken by Sherman, 378 
Savannah, the first ocean steamship, 262 

(note) 
Saybrook founded, 99 
Scalawags, 390 
Scandals, era of, 395 
Schenectady, attack on, 132 
Schuyler, General, igg 
Scott, General Winfield, 321 
Scrooby, 84 

"Sea-to-sea" grant, 68, 136 (note) 
Seals, protection of, 413 
Search, right of, 260, 361 (note) 
.Secession, and the Civil War, 3S2 

and Jackson, 295 

of South Carolina, 348 

of Southern states, 348 

threat of, 254 (note), 2S9 (note) 

and Webster, 294 
Sedition Act, the, 247 
Seminoles in Florida, 301 
Semmes, Captain, 378 
Separatists, or Pilgrims, 84 
Sequoya, 56 

Seventeenth Amendment, 440 
.Sevier, John, 236 
Seward, W. H., buys Alaska, 392 

"higher law " doctrine of, 333 (note) 

warns France, 3S7 
Sewing machine, invention of, 326 
Seymour, Horatio, 392 
Shays's Rebellion, 216 .- 
Sherman, General, at Atlanta, 377 

march to the sea, 37S 

receives surrender of Johnston, 3S1 

takes Savannah, 37S 
Sherman Silver Act, 409 

repeal of, 414 
Ships, clipper, era of, 312 
Siege of Boston, 183 

of Chattanooga, 376 

of Nashville, 378 

of Petersburg, 380 

of Vicksburg, 375 

of Vorktown, 211 
Silver, discovered in West, 346 

dropped in act of 1873, 400 

the Bland-Allison Act, 401 

Sherman Silver Coinage Act, 409 

Sherman Silver Coinage Act repealed, 414 

the silver campaign of 1896, 417 



INDEX 



Sitting Bull, 307 
Sixteenth Amendment, 440 
.Slater opens cotton mill, 2.ti 
Slave trade, abolished in District of Columbia, 
333 

foreign, prohibited, 262 
Slavery, and Civil War, 35J 

and the compromises of the Constitution, 
218 

constitutional amendments and, 3S6, 389, 
394 . 

cotton gm and, 240 

and the Dred Scott Decision, 345 

Kmancipation Proclamation, 372 

excluded from Northwest Territory-, 214 

fugitive slave law of 1793, 334 (note); of 
1850, 334 . „ ^ „ 

"gag resolution and, 29S 

Garrison attacks, 296 

growth of abolition movement, 296 

importation of slaves forbidden (1808), 262 

insurrection of slaves (1831), 296 

introduced into Virginia, 69 

J. Q. Adams and right of petition, 29S 

John llrown and, 342, 347 

Kansas-Nebraska Act, 337 

and Lincoln, 353 

Missouri Compromise Act (1820), 2S0 

opposed by Jefferson, 262 (note) 

Personal Liberty Laws and, 334 

Republican party opposes, 340 

Seward's " higher law " and, 333 (note) 

and Texas, 315 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin " and, 336 

the Underground Railroad, 334 

Wilmot Proviso and, 324 
Slidell and Mason, 361 
Smith, Captain John, 67 
Smith, Joseph, founds Mormon Church, 307 
Snake, Franklin's, 137 
Sons of Liberty, 173 
South America, republics founded in , 2 79 (note) , 

282, 427 
South Carolina settled, 11 1 

exposition and protest, 289 (note) 

favors nullification, 294 

readmitted, 390 

secedes, 34S 
South Dakota admitted to the Union, 40S 
Sovereignty, popular, 333 (note), 339 
Spain, cedes Florida, 278 

discoveries of, S 

establishes missions in California, 32S 

explorations of, 26 

loses American colonies, 279(note), 2S2, 427 

war with, 420 
Specie Circular, 300 
Specie pa>Tnent, resumption of, 401 
Spice Islands, search for, 8 
Spoils system, 293 
Squanto, 87 

Squatter sovereignty, 333 (note), 339 
Stamp Act, protest against, 170 

rcp>ealed, 173 
Stamp Act Congress, 172 
Standish. Captain Myles, 87 
Stanton, Sccretarv-, 390 
.Stanwix, Fort, 197 
Stark, General John, 196 
" Star-,Spangled banner,"' 273 
State banks, 304 
State constitutions, 185, 1S5 (note) 



State debts, 232 

State rights, doctrine of, 232 

States, constitutions formed by, 1S5 (note) 

dates of admission, Appendix, p. xxvi 

formed, 1S5 
.Statue of Liberty, 406 
Steam railroad, 291 
Steamboat, first ocean, 262 (note) 

invention of, 261 

in the West, 262 
Stephens, Alexander H., 356 (note) 
.Stephenson, George, 292 
.Steuben, Haron, 194 
Stevens, Thaddeus, 391 
Stowe, Mrs. H. H., 336 
Strikes, the Baltimore and Ohio, 398 

the Chicago, 415 

the Homestead, 410 
Stu>'vesant, Governor, 76 
.Subtreasuries of the United States, 306 
Suffrage, and Dorr Rebellion, 311 

granted to negroes, 394 

woman, 452 
Sugar Act, 169 (note) 
.Sullivan, General John, 179, 203 
Sulpicians in Montreal, 48 
Sumter, Fort, 353 
Supreme Court, established, 220 

important decisions of, 254 (note), 261 
(note) 

Marshall, Chief Justice of, 250 
Sutter, Captain, 330 
Swedes settle Delaware, 77 (note) 

Taft. William H., administration of, 432 

life of, 432 (note) 
Tariff, of Abominations (1828), 289 

Calhoun's exf)osition and protest, 289 
(note) 

Clay's compromise tariff (1S33), 295 

Dirigley tariff (1897), 418 

the first (178^)), 233 

the first protective tariff (1816), 275 (note) 

McKinley tariff (1890), 408 

Morrill tariff (1861), 441 

and nullification, 294 

l'a>Tie-Aldrich tariff (1909), 432 

revenue tariff (1846), 441 

tariff of 1824, 288 

tariff act (i833>, 295 

tariff act (1883), 404 

tariff discussion (1888), 407 

Underwood tariff (191 4), 441 

Wilson tariff (1894), 413 
Tariff Board, the, 442 
Tax, the Income, 440 
Taxation without representation, 171 
Taylor, General Zacharj-, administration of, 
332 

life of, 332 (note) 

in Mexican War, 320 
Tea Partv. the Boston, 177 
Tea ship, the Peggy St.-ntirf, 177 
Tecumseh, conspiracy of, 2i>l> 
Telegraph. Atlantic cable laid, 391 

invented, 312 

Pacific cable laid, 302 
Telephone invented, 398 
Temperance and Father Matthew, 296 
Temperance movement, 29*^ 
Tennessee admitted, 215 (note), 236 
Tenure of Office Act, 390 



Ixii 



ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Territory acquired by tlie United States : 

Alaska, 392 

Canal Zone, 425 

Florida, 27S 

Gadsden Purchase, 336 

Guam, 422 

Hawaii, 413 

Louisiana, 254 

Mexican Cession, 324 

Oregon, 319 

Philippine Islands, 422 

Porto Rico, 422 

Texas, 315 

Virgin Islands, 455 
Texas, annexed, 315 

becomes an independent republic, 314 
Thirteenth Amendment, the, 3S6 
Thomas, General G. H., in Civil War, 368 

life of, 368 (note) 
Ticonderoga, captured by Ethan Allen, 180 

retaken by British, 196 
Tilden, S. J., candidate for president, 397 
Tobacco cultivated in Virginia, 68 
Toleration Act, of Maryland, 105 

of Rhode Island, 109 
Topeka, constitution of, 342 
Tordesillas, treaty of, 17 (note) 
Tones, the, 184 
Toscanelli, 10 (note) 
Toussaint L'Ouverture, 255 
Town meeting, 87 
Townshend Acts, 173, 176 
Trade, early routes of, 4 

foreign slave, prohibited, 262 

restrictions on colonial, 71, 168 

with the Indies, 4 
Trails, map of, 335 
Transcontinental railroad, 394 
Travel in colonial times, 152 
Treason of Arnold, 209 
Treasury, independent, 306 
Treaty, of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) (King 
George's War), 135 

with Algiers (1795), 243 

with France (1778), 201 

between France and England at Paris 
(1763), 144 

of Ghent (1814), 274 

with Japan (1854), 342 

Jay's (1795), 242 

with Mexico (1848), 324 

Oregon (1846), 3i'9 

of Paris (1783), 214 

Penn's, with the Indians (1683), ii6 

of Ryswick (1697) (King William's War), 
.132 

with Spain (1795), 243 

with Spain (1899), 422 

of Utrecht (17 13) (Queen Anne's War), 134 

of Washington (1871), 393 

Webster- Ashburton (1842), 311 
Trent affair, the, 361 
Tribute paid to Tripoli, 252 
Tripoli, war with, 252 
Trusts, 409 

Turner, Nat, rebellion, 296 
Twelfth Amendment, 246 (note) 
Tyler, administration of, 310 

life of, 310 (note) 

"Uncle Tom's Cabin," 336 
Underground Railroad, 334 



Union, adoption of independence, 1S5 

Albany Plan of, 137 

Articles of Confederation, 188 

Committees of Correspondence, 178 

Constitutional Convention, 218 

First Continental Congress, 178 

Jackson defends the, 295 

Lincoln on the, 353 

New England Confederation, 91 

Stamp Act Congress, 172 

threatened by secession, 295 
Union Pacific Railroad, 394 
Unions, labor, 410 
"Unite or Die," 137 (note) 
United States, adoption of Constitution by, 218 

Articles of Confederation, 18S 
University, of Notre Dame, 126 (note) 

of Pennsylvania, 161 

of San Marcos, 28 (note) 
Utah, admitted as state, 40S 

equal suffrage in, 452 

settled by Mormons, 307 
Utrecht, treaty of, 134 

Valley Forge, 195 

Van Buren, administration of, 303 

life of, 303 (note) 
Vancouver, George, 257 
Vasco da Gama, 18 
Venezuela, dispute between Great Britain and, 

414 
Vera Cruz captured, 323 
Verendr>'e, 129, 256 (note) 
Vermont, admission of, 235 
Verrazano, 32 
Vespucius, Americus, 18 
Vincennes taken by Clark, 206 
Vinland discovered, 2 
Virgin Islands purchased, 455 
Virginia, Bacon's Rebellion in, 71 

first settlement in, 65 

House of Burgesses in, 70 

readmitted, 390 

resolutions of 179S, 248 

secedes, 356 
Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 248 

Waldseemiiller, ig 
Waltham, cotton mill at, 275 
Wampum, t;g 

War Hawks, the, 267 (note) 
Wars {See Battles) : 

American Revolution, 167 

Black Hawk War, 301 

Civil War, 353 

French and Indian War, 135 

Great War, 455 

King George's War, 134 

King William's War, 131 

Mexican War, 320 

Pequot War, loi 

Pontiac's Conspiracy, 144 

Queen Anne's War, 132 

Russo-Japanese War, 43 1 (note) 

Seminole War, 301 

Spanish- American War, 420 

war with Creek Indians, 271 

war with France, 247 

war with Tecumseh, 266 

war with Tripoli, 252 

Warof iSr2. 267 

Western Indian wars, 396 



INDKX 



Ixiii 



Washington, D.C., captured and burned In- 
British, 273 

made national capital, 249 

treaty of, 3>;3 
Washington, state of, admitted, 40.S 
Washington, Kort, captured by Howe, ic;i, 
Washington, CJeorge, administration of, 2jy 

with Hraddock, 130 

commander of Continental Army, 181 

in Constitutional Convention, 21S 

death of, 248 

at P'ort Necessity, 137 

life of, 229 (note) 

message to the French, 136 
Washingtonian societies, 296 
Watt, James, and steam power, 240 (note) 
Wayne, General Anthony, at ^Iaumee, 237 

at Stony Point, 203 
Weather Bureau established, 395 
Weaver, General J. 13., candidate for presi- 
dency, 412 
Webster, Daniel, and Ha>Tie, 294 
Webster- Ashburton treaty, 311 
Webster's I)ictionar\', 302 
Wells, Dr. Horace, 326 
West India Company, Dutch, 75 
West Indies discovered. 14 
West Point, founded, 252 

in the Revolution, 209 
West Virginia formed, 356 (note) 
Westward movement, 175 
Whigs, elect Harrison and Tyler, 309 

elect Taylor and Fillmore, 331 

origin of, 309 



W hisky Rebellion, 23S 

White apprentices, bg (note) 

Whitman, Dr., and Oregon, 319 (note) 

Whitney, Kli, invents the cotton gin, 239 

Whittier, J. G., 302 

Wildcat banks and money, 305 

William and Marj' College, 163 

Williams, Roger, founds Providence, 90 

Wilmot Proviso, 324 

Wilson, Woodrow, election of, 437 

first administration of, 440 

life of, 440 (note) 

rciilection of, 453 

second adnvnistration of. 454 
Wisconsin, admitted to the Union, 332 
(note) 

early explorers in, 122 

Juneau founds Milwaukee, 277 
Witchcraft, the .Salem, 95 
Wolfe, General, takes Quebec, 143 
Woman suffrage, growth of, 452 
Writs of assistance, 169 
Wyoming, admitted, 408 

woman suffrage in, 452 
Wyoming Valley, massacre at, 203 

X V Z papers, 246 

Vale College founded, 156 

\ ork, Duke of, seizes New Netherland, 7S 

Vorktown, surrender of, 211 

Zenger, trial of Peter, 80 (note), 160 



